Comparative Study: Construction Materials and Building Services

This report provides a comprehensive analysis of common construction materials, including steel, copper, aluminum, timber, concrete, cement, and glass, detailing their properties and applications. It explores the performance of these materials in specific areas, such as concrete basements, steel structural frames, and aluminum facades. The report also delves into the loading of structural materials like reinforced concrete, structural steel, and timber, examining their general behavior, suitability, limitations, forms of loading, and inherent properties. Furthermore, it compares steel, reinforced concrete, and timber under various loads. Building services calculations, including thermal, artificial and natural lighting, and sound reverberation, are also presented. The integration of building services, such as internal and under-floor distribution, is discussed, along with heat loss and gain calculations, and a comparison of different concrete mixes based on slump and compressive strength tests, and tensile strength of steel reinforcing bars. The report concludes with a bibliography.

Name of Institution
Science & Materials for Construction & the Built Environment
[Type the document subtitle]
Student Name:
Registration ID:

Contents
Q no. 1 Properties and Use of Common Construction Materials.................................................5
1.1 Steel:......................................................................................................................................5
1.2 Copper:..................................................................................................................................5
1.3 Aluminium:...........................................................................................................................5
1.4 Timber:..................................................................................................................................5
1.5 Concrete:...............................................................................................................................5
1.6 Cement:..................................................................................................................................5
1.7 Glass:.....................................................................................................................................6
Q no. 2: Performance of Construction Materials in the Specified Areas:...................................7
2.1 Concrete Basements:.............................................................................................................7
2.1.1Concrete to be used as basement material:....................................................................7
2.2 Steel for Structural Frame:..................................................................................................8
2.3 Aluminium for Facade:........................................................................................................8
Q no. 3: Loading Structural Materials..........................................................................................9
3.1 Reinforced Concrete..............................................................................................................9
3.1.1 General structure behavior............................................................................................9
3.1.2 Suitability and limitation of use.....................................................................................9
3.1.3 Form of loading............................................................................................................10
3.1.4 Inherence of property...................................................................................................10
3.2 Structural steel....................................................................................................................10
3.2.1 General structure behavior..........................................................................................10
3.2.2 Suitability and limitation..............................................................................................10
3.2.3 Form of loading............................................................................................................11
3.2.4 Inherence of property...................................................................................................11
3.3 Timber..................................................................................................................................12
3.3.1 General structure behavior..........................................................................................12
3.3.2 Suitability and limitation of use...................................................................................12
3.3.3 Form of loading............................................................................................................12
3.3.4 Inherence of property...................................................................................................13

Q no. 4 Comparison of Steel, RC and Timber under Loads.......................................................13
4.1 Steel......................................................................................................................................13
4.2 RC:.......................................................................................................................................13
4.3 Timber:................................................................................................................................13
Q no. 5 Building Services Calculations:......................................................................................15
5.1 Thermal Calculations:........................................................................................................15
5.1.1 U point calculation:......................................................................................................15
5.1.2 Temperature Gradient and Dew point Calculation:...................................................16
5.1.3 Temperature Gradient and Dew Point Gradient Graphs:..........................................18
5.2 Artificial Lightening Calculation:......................................................................................19
5.3 Natural Lightening Calculation:........................................................................................20
5.4 Sound Reverberation for Suite:..........................................................................................20
Q no. 6 BUILDING SERVICES INTEGRATION......................................................................21
6.1 Internal distribution of services..........................................................................................21
6.1.1Vertical distribution of services.....................................................................................21
6.1.2 Horizontal distribution of services...............................................................................22
6.2 Under-floor distribution......................................................................................................22
Q no. 7: Heat loss and Heat gain Calculation:...........................................................................23
7.1 Heat Loss.............................................................................................................................23
7.1.1 Fabric Heat Loss..........................................................................................................23
7.1.2 Ventilation heat loss.....................................................................................................23
7.2 Heat Gain from Occupants:................................................................................................24
7.3 Solid Fuel Mass required for a season of 33 weeks:.........................................................24
Q no. 8: Comparing Mixes...........................................................................................................24
8.1 PFA Slump and compressive Strength Test.......................................................................24
8.1.1 Workability (Slump Test).............................................................................................24
8.1.2Compressive Strength....................................................................................................25
8.2 OPC Mix..............................................................................................................................26
8.2.1 Workability (Slump Test).............................................................................................26
8.2.2 Compressive Strength...................................................................................................26
8.3 Steel Needle Reinforcement................................................................................................27

8.3.1 Slump Test....................................................................................................................27
8.3.2 Compressive Strength...................................................................................................27
8.4 Steel reinforcing bars tensile strength................................................................................28
Bibliography...............................................................................................................................................29

Q no. 1 Properties and Use of Common Construction Materials
1.1 Steel:
Steel is considered as an alloy of steel. Due to its strength and durability steel is an important
part of building and construction. Steel strength and durability and its many properties make it
suitable to be used in the structures exposed to heat, weather and constant usage. Steel is used in
bridges, high rise buildings, footings and other load bearing structures
1.2 Copper:
 Copper is a non reactive material, that’s why it does not get corroded when exposed to
weather. Copper is normally used in pipes, electrical cables and radiators. Copper is
considered to be a hygienic material and it tends down the growth of bacteria and germs.
 Copper is a ductile material that’s why it is used in the manufacturing of pipes. Copper is
a tough metal and it can be used for the manufacturing of tools and door handles.
1.3 Aluminium:
Aluminium is a low density material and it is resistant to corrosion. Aluminium is a malleable
metal and good conductor of heat and electricity. It can be polished for aesthetical purposes. Low
density of Aluminium makes it ideal for construction of ladders, window frames and light weight
structures. Aluminium can be shaped easily and it is corrosion resistant. Aluminium is
considered a good conductor and highly reflective. (1)
1.4 Timber:
Thermal conductivity of timber is very low. Aluminium and steel transmits heats 7000 and 1700
times greater than the timber. That’s why timber is used in ceilings and wall coverings. Timber is
resistant to electric current. Timber is easy to handle and it is labor friendly. Timber undergoes
termite attack that can deteriorate it completely. A protective coating can resist the termite and
weather attack on timber and it can be used for long. (2)
1.5 Concrete:
 Durable and long lasting structures are built up of concrete. That will not rust nor burn.
Life span of structures made up of concrete is a way more that other structures.
 Structures or buildings with concrete walls, floors and foundations are highly energy
efficient.
 Concrete can be produced on site and in the quantity needed, thereby it reduces waste
material. The concrete can also be crushed and recycled into aggregates that can be used
in pavements and other structures.

1.6 Cement:
Cement is considered as binder material in concrete. It is mixed with water and sand to make a
plaster that is applied on walls to bind up the bricks with one another.
1.7 Glass:
Tough material and gets broken upon sudden stresses. Used in windows, doors and ventilations
and also used for cladding works.
Table 1: Properties and uses of Construction materials:
Strength Elasticity Water
adsorptio
n
Moisture
movement
Thermal
conductivi
ty
Electrical Durabilit
y
workabilit
y
Viscosit
y
Steel Exhibits
high
tensile
strength
Steel is
elastic
material
and
resume its
shape
when
loading is
removed
Water
repellant.
Gets
corroded
in
presence
of water
Low in
moisture
content
Thermal
conductivit
y of steel
ranges
from 12 to
45 Wm/k
Conducto
r
Durable
and vastly
used
Steel
material
with high
grade can
resist a
large
amount of
loading
stress.
No
Coppe
r
Soft
material
Can be
permanentl
y
deformed
without
breaking
Do not
absorb
water
Low M.C Conductive Conductiv
e
Is a
ductile
metal and
used in
many
works
Highly
workable
No
Alum. High
strength
Less
Elastic as
compared
to steel
Water
repellant
Low in
moisture
content
Less
conductive
conductiv
e
Durable
and long
lasting
Used in
windows
frames,
ladders
and roof
layers
No
Tim. Depends
on the
source
and
upbringin
g of Tree
Less
Elastic
Absorb
water
Keep
absorbing
water until
M.C
becomes
equal to
surroundin
gs
Very less
conductive
to Heat
Non
conductiv
e
Durable if
used with
protective
coating
High
workable
and easy
to use
No
Conc. High
strength
No Absorb
water to
gain its
max
strength
Low in
M.C
Less
conductive
to heat
Very less
conductiv
e
Durable
and used
in many
high rise
structures
Highly
workable
No
Cem. Used as a
binder to
gain
strength
No Absorb
water to
gain
strength
Low in
M.C if not
exposed to
weather
Less
conductive
to heat
No Durable
and long
lasting if
used with
Lime
Highly
workable
No
Glass Only
holds
rupture
Non
elastic
material
no no Conductive
to heat
No Not
durable.
Will get
Very less
workable
No

Figure 1: Concrete Block
strength break with
time and a
little
earthquak
es
Q no. 2: Performance of Construction Materials in the Specified
Areas:
2.1 Concrete Basements:
Basements can be used for various purposes like car parking, swimming pools, playing areas,
residence and for commercial purposes. Basements provide additional space for living and
structurally they transmit the load of superstructure to foundations. There are 3 methods for
basement construction.
1. Open cut method
2. Cut and cover method
3. Top down method
Different types of material like cement, steel, concrete, wood, glass, Aluminium are used during
construction. Some of them are justified below:
2.1.1Concrete to be used as basement material:
Basement development
with solid concrete is very
normal. It will deliver a
solid basement in many
districts. Solid concrete has
a tendency to be the most
temperate approach to
assemble a Basement.
You'll have numerous
more solid bricklayers to
offer the occupation than
sub-contractual workers
who can do poured solid
basement development.
The opposition tends to create bring down costs. In any

Fig2: Steel Structure
Fig3: Aluminium Façade
case, solid piece, regardless of the possibility that fortified, is not fitting for ranges that have
sweeping soil. That is soil that swells a ton when it gets wet and shrinks when it dries. The
swelling of this dirt will apply parallel burdens (weights) to your Basement wall (push on it
sideways) and can really make the Basement development break and fall flat. On the off chance
that this is your dirt sort, you'll require strengthened solid Basement walls.
2.2 Steel for Structural Frame:
 Most steel development is finished with a sort of steel called mild steel. Mild steel is a
material that is massively solid.
 This huge quality is of incredible
preferred standpoint to structures.
The other vital element of steel
encircling is its adaptability. It can
twist without breaking, which is
another extraordinary favorable
position, as a steel building can flex
when it is pushed to the other side
by say, wind, or a seismic tremor.
The third normal for steel is its
versatility or malleability. This
implies when subjected to
incredible drive; it won't all of a sudden break like
glass, however gradually twist rusty. This property
permits steel structures to twist rusty, or disfigure, along these lines offering cautioning to
tenants to get away. Disappointment in steel outlines is not sudden - a steel structure
seldom falls. Steel by and large performs much better in tremor than most different
materials in view of these properties
2.3 Aluminium for Facade:
 Aluminium and Aluminium cladding offers great benefits compared to other metals.
When designing the facade of your
building it’s important to take these
benefits into consideration.
 Aluminium is a very light weight metal:
Aluminium weight is almost the third of
weight of steel. That is the big reason
that Aluminium is considered while

cladding. Aluminium panels, louvers and façade are much easier to install due to its less
weight. Aluminium is resistant to corrosion due to its protective coating. Weather
conditions do not affect Aluminium as in case of copper. Aluminum is flexible and it can
be easily melt and bent in required shape. Aluminum is recyclable and it will not lose its
strength and quality in the process of recycling or after installation.
Q no. 3: Loading Structural Materials
3.1 Reinforced Concrete
3.1.1 General structure behavior
The reinforcements more often than not, however not really, steel reinforcing\bars (rebar) and is
typically installed latently in the concrete before the concrete sets. Reinforcing schemes are by
and large designed to oppose tensile stresses specifically areas of the concrete that may cause
unacceptable cracking as well as structural failure.
3.1.2 Suitability and limitation of use
Reinforced concrete is ideally suited for
 the construction of floor and roof slabs
 reinforced concrete for bridge
 earth retaining structures
 water retaining structures
 Reinforced concrete grid floors
 Reinforced concrete folded plate
 atomic structures
 Multistory reinforced concrete buildings
 Reinforced concrete piles
Limitations are as follows:
 The tensile strength of reinforced concrete is about one-tenth of its compressive strength.
 The main steps of using reinforced concrete are mixing, casting, and curing. All of this
affects the final strength.
 The cost of the forms used for casting RC is relatively higher.

 For multi-storied building the RCC column section for is larger than steel section as the
compressive strength is lower in the case of RCC.
 Shrinkage causes crack development and strength loss. (3)
3.1.3 Form of loading
Under cyclic loading cracking of the concrete section is nearly impossible to prevent; however,
the size and location of cracks can be limited and controlled by appropriate reinforcement,
control joints, curing methodology and concrete mix design. Cracking can allow moisture to
penetrate and corrode the reinforcement. This is a serviceability failure in limit state design.
3.1.4 Inherence of property
Following are the properties of strengthened cement:
 Reinforced concrete has a high compressive strength contrasted with other building
materials.
 Due to the grave reinforcement, reinforced concrete can likewise withstand a decent sum
tensile stress.
 Fire and weather resistance of reinforced concrete is reasonable.
 The reinforced concrete building system is stronger than whatever other building
framework.
 Reinforced concrete, as a fluid material to start with, can be financially shaped into an
about limitless range of shapes.
 The maintenance cost of reinforced concrete is low.
3.2 Structural steel
3.2.1 General structure behavior
A structural steel shape is a profile, formed with a specific cross section and following certain
standards for chemical composition and mechanical properties. Structural steel shapes, sizes,
composition, strengths, storage practices, etc., are regulated by standards in most industrialized
countries.
3.2.2 Suitability and limitation

The strength to weight ratio of structural steel is excellent, metals join easily, efficient shapes are
available, etc. With those advantages, though, come some challenges that are best solved by a
good understanding of how the metals actually perform in a structure and act accordingly.
For larger buildings, metals are a key element of the structural system. Steel beams and columns,
steel joists, steel studs, aluminum framing are a few examples of metal construction
The Limitations of structural steel are:
 Maintenance cost of a steel structure is very high. Due to action of rust in steel, expensive
paints are required to renew time to time. So that resistance against severe conditions
increases.
 Steel has very small resistance against fire as compared to concrete. Almost from 600-
700C half of steel strength reduced.
 Steel cannot be mold in any direction you want. It can only be used in forms in which
sections originally exists.
 If steel loses its ductility property, than chances of brittle fractures increase.
 If there are very large variations in tensile strength than this lead steel to more tension.
Due to which steel tensile properties graph falls down.
3.2.3 Form of loading
Structural steel beams placed at 4' on center with a steel deck spanning perpendicular which will
have 4" of concrete placed on top of the steel deck is not a composite system. That means the
steel beams will carry their own weight, the weight of the steel deck and concrete above and
whatever live load gets applied.
3.2.4 Inherence of property
Structural steel differs from concrete in its attributed compressive strength as well as tensile
strength. It has high strength, stiffness; toughness, and ductile properties, structural steel is one of
the most commonly used materials in commercial and industrial building construction. Structural
steel can be developed into nearly any shape, which is ether bolted or welded together in
construction. Steel is inherently a noncombustible material. However, when heated to
temperatures seen in a fire scenario, the strength and stiffness of the material is significantly
reduced. Steel, when in contact with water, can corrode, creating a potentially dangerous
structure than wood.

3.3 Timber
3.3.1 General structure behavior
Wood is an anisotropic material with different strength properties in different directions. Its
strength is directly dependent on the grain direction; axial, radial or tangential. Its properties also
change with environmental conditions. The properties not only vary from species to species but
even within the same species. to be able to design timber structures successfully, the practicing
engineer needs to be aware of the particular properties of the timber being specified. (2)
3.3.2 Suitability and limitation of use
 For overwhelming development works like segments, trusses, heaps.
 For light development works like entryways, windows, deck and material.
 For other lasting works like for railroad sleepers, fencing posts, electric shafts and
entryways.
 For brief works in development like framework, focusing, shoring and strutting, pressing
of materials.
 For improving works like features and furniture.
 For body works of transports, lorries, prepares and vessels
 For modern uses like pulps (utilized as a part of making papers), card sheets, backdrops
 For making sports merchandise and melodic instruments.
Following are the limitations of timber use:
Shrinkage and Swelling of Wood
Deterioration of Wood due to fungi and termite
3.3.3 Form of loading
Although wood is the world's most widely used structural material, whether measured by volume
consumed or value of finished construction, its behavior is not well understood even by people
who have spent their careers studying it.
 What is known about failure processes comes almost entirely from empirical evidence
collected for engineering purposes.
 Hypotheses about behavior of wood are based on macroscopic observation of specimens
during and following tests.

 With only limited resources and the need to obtain practical results quickly, the timber
engineering research community has steered away from the scientific approach.
3.3.4 Inherence of property
Following are the inherence properties of timber:
 Color, grain, features, smoothness of surface
 Specification: species, durability, appearance graded
Q no. 4 Comparison of Steel, RC and Timber under Loads
4.1 Steel
Steel Beams are considered to be the tensile members they act in tension when ever subjected
to Loads. Steel beams can be used to support the slab of any structure but they should be kept
safe from weather conditions. Steel gets corroded due to Sulphuric acid and moisture attack
that can lower its ultimate strength. In case of columns steel columns will be a bad choice
because columns should be compressive in nature. If steel columns are used for heavy
structures the result will be destruction. In case of slabs steel reinforcement is used to lower
the stiffness and to increase the tensile strength of slab. In case of footings a steel mesh is
tied then concrete is poured. In case of piles steel is also used. But in water structures steel
piles should be avoided due to its corrosive nature. (4)
4.2 RC:
Reinforced concrete beams are used for heavy structures. Balanced reinforced concrete
beams are considered safe structurally because they give warning before the failure of
structure. Reinforced concrete columns are widely used to support slabs and beams. Columns
should be compressive in nature. In case of loads more than the column capacity the concrete
columns starts deterioration and buckling. Reinforced concrete slabs are used for high rise
buildings. They can bear a large amount of load as compared to steel and timber. But
Reinforced concrete structures cost much as compared to steel and timber structures.
4.3 Timber:
Timber is considered to be a light weight structural element. Timber is used to support light
weight structures. Timber beams and rafters can be used in the buildings like refugee
shelters, commercial market shops and other light weight structures. Timber strength depends
upon it’s a source and they way it is grown. Higher strength timber can be used for columns.

Timbers are heat resistant and they gain strength as subjected to heat. So timber columns will
maintain the interior cool. For timber slabs timber sheathing is used. In case of footings
timber footing is very rarely used, mostly concrete footings are provided under wooden
structures. Timber deteriorates more rapidly as compared to steel. Timber is attacked badly
by termite and gets deteriorated. The overall cost of timber structures are a way less than the
steel and concrete structures.
Table2: Behavior of Steel, Beam and Timber in Case of Beam, Column, Slab and
Footing
Beam Column Slab Footing
Steel Steel beams fail
in tension
beyond ultimate
load
Deteriorate
under weather
conditions
A Protective
coating must be
provided before
use
Steel columns
will start
tensioning under
higher loads,
that will result
failure
Steel slabs are
not used
Steels are used in
footings with
concrete
Steel piles are
used as footings
RC Widely used
Fail in
compression
And steel
reinforcement
remains intact
Give warning
before failure
RC column is a
compression
member
Beyond ultimate
loads starts
buckling
Widely used for
high rise
buildings.
Pad footings,
isolated footings
and RC pile
footings are
widely used now
a days
Timber Not used Heat resistant
Used in case of
light weight
structures
Not used Concrete footing
is used under
timber structures

Q no. 5 Building Services Calculations:
5.1 Thermal Calculations:
5.1.1 U point calculation:
Given data:
External wall 1 = 2.4 m High, 5.2 m Long
External wall 2= 2.4 m high, 4.8 m long
Area of Plan = 4.8 x 5.2 = 24.96m2
T1= thickness of lightweight plaster= 0.015m k1=0.18 W/mK
T2=thickness of concrete block layer=0.1m k2=0.11 W/mK
T3=thickness of insulation=0.04m k3=0.025 W/mK
T4=cladding thickness=0.102.5 k4=0.77 W/mK
 k1, k2, k3, k4 stand for thermal conductivity of all layers respectively
Table3: Data for calculation of U value:
Sr no. Layer name Thickness
(m)
Thermal
conductivity k
W/mk
R value
m2K/W
1 Internal surface ------ ----- 0.12
2 Lightweight
plaster
0.015 0.18 0.0834
3 Conc. Block 0.1 0.11 0.909
4 Cavity ----- ----- 0.18
5 Insulation 0.04 0.025 1.6
6 Cladding 0.1025 0.77 0.134
7 External
surface
----- ------ 0.06

Total R-value = R1+R2+R3+R4+R5+R6+R7
=0.12+0.0834+0.909+0.18+1.6+0.134+0.06= 3.03 m2K/W
U-value= 1/Total R-value = 1/ 3.086 = 0.33 W/m2K
Combined U value:
Q = Area x U value x Temp Diff.
Assume Temp diff = 1 C
Q wall = 20.22 x 0.33 x 1 = 6.67 W/C
Q window = 3.78 x 5.3 x 1 = 20.03 W/C
Q total = 20.03 + 6.67 = 26.70 W/C
Combined U value = Q total / Total Area = 26.70 / 24 = 1.11 W/m2
5.1.2 Temperature Gradient and Dew point Calculation:
Heat flow through wall is taken as constant through wall and is specified by the formula
Q overall = Area x u value x (Temp Diff. b/w interior and exterior)................................................(1)
= (1/3.086) x (20 – 0)
= 6.489 W/m2
By substituting the values of thermal conductivity of the specific layer, thickness of the layer,
Area of the wall and heat flow through the wall, the temperature of the specific layer shown by
T2 in the equation below can be calculated. And temperature gradient can also be calculated:
Q = [k x A x( T1 – T2)]/(L)
Temperature Gradient = temperature difference of adjacent layers / thickness of layer
 Temperature of light weight plaster = 14.11 C, Temperature Gradient = 392.67
 Temperature of Conc. Block Layer=50 C, Temperature gradient= 358.9
 Temperature of Insulation Board= 62.9 C, Temperature gradient=322.5
 Temperature of cladding work= 53.6, Temperature gradient= 91.70
Dew point temperature can be found from psychometric chart and the formula below

(5)
Formula: Td = t – [100 –RH/5] where Td is dew point temperature and t is temperature of
layer
Fig4: Psychometric Chart

Table4: Value of Dew Point gradients using equation and Chart
Value of By Equation Celcius By chart Celcius
Td1 74 74.5
Td2 38.2 38
Td3 25.3 25.5
Td4 34.7 34.7
5.1.3 Temperature Gradient and Dew Point Gradient Graphs:
0 50mm 100mm 150mm 200mm 250mm 300mm 350mm
400 F
300 F
200 F
100 F
0
Fig 5: Temperature Gradient with Wall Cross

(6)
5.2 Artificial Lightening Calculation:
Required lux = 500 lux Room area = 4.8 x 5.2 m2
Lumen per fixture = lumen efficiency x each fixture watt = 80 x 50=4000 lumen
Assumed MF= 0.8
h e=(2.4- 0.8) m = 1.6 m
K = (0.8 W + 0.2 L)/he = (0.8 x 4.8 + 0.2 x 5.2)/1.6
K= 3
From 70 % ceiling reflectance and 30 % wall reflectance and K =3, table gives the value of
utilization factor as 0.49
Required no. of fixtures or lamps= [required lux x room area]/ [MF x UF x Lumen per
fixture]
Required no. of fixtures = (500 x 4.8 x 5.2]/[0.8 x 0.49 x 4000]=7.9
No. of lamps required = 8 lamps
80
60
40
20
0
0 50mm 100mm 150mm 200mm 250mm 300mm 350mm
Fig 6: Dew Point Gradient with Wall cross

5.3 Natural Lightening Calculation:
Natural light through sky component
Average DF= [W x T x Angle] / [total Area x (1 – R2)]
R= 0.8, T= 0.6 for double glazed window, Angle = 77
Window Area=W= 2 x1= 2 sq. meter
Total Area=A= 2.4 x 5.2= 12.48 sq. meter
Average DF= 20.56 % = 21%
Light entering through sky component in to window = 0.21 x 5000= 1050 lux
Light through External Reflecting component is 50 %:
0.50 X 5000 = 2500 lux
Light through internal reflected component:
Light from floor reflectance=0.20 x 2500 = 500 lux
Light from wall reflectance= 0.50 x 2500 = 1250 lux
(7)
5.4 Sound Reverberation for Suite:
Sabine Formula:
T r = c V/A tot
T r= Reverberation Time
C= Constant = 0.16 for metric units
V = Room Volume
A tot= Total sound absorption in meter square
A tot = S1a1 + S2a2 + S3a3+…………………

Si is the area of particular surface and ai its sound absorption coefficient
Surface Area m2 Sound Absorption
coefficient
Sound absorption
M2
Walls, Brickwork,
plaster board
24 0.02 0.48
Floor, tiles 24.96 0.05 1.248
Inside Ceilings 24.96 0.10 2.496
Occupants 2 NOS 2 0.46 0.92
Total sound absorption = 5.144 m2
T r = 0.16 x 52.9/ (5.155) from Sabine Formula
T r = 1.641
Q no. 6 BUILDING SERVICES INTEGRATION
Present day structures require various sorts of services for the comfort, health and safety and fast
development of the clients. Building services can be assembled under the accompanying classes:
 Air-molding hardware and vertical appropriation of air to floors
 Heating and cooling, including neighborhood control for each piece of the floor
 Fire protection systems, including dynamic measures, such as sprinklers and automatic
detection
 Electrical and data communication systems
 Water and sanitary disseminations and offices
 Lifts, escalators and other hardware for vertical development
 Low or zero carbon advances for on location vitality era.
6.1 Internal distribution of services
For some reasons, there is pressure to limit the space assigned to the building services while
satisfying the reason of aesthetics. Hence, it is important to guarantee an effective utilize of
space for the service distribution system in the vertical and horizontal bearings and in the plant
rooms.
6.1.1Vertical distribution of services
The following recommendations apply to the vertical distribution of services:
 Provide constant and continuous vertical service routes

 Maintain a consistent cross-segment of the service route
 Position the plant room with the goal that it is as close as conceivable to the center of the
arrangement region it serves
 Consider the association amongst horizontal services and vertical services routes
 Provide separate routes for different services. The base is two; one for electric sand one
for water pipes, and so forth., albeit most structures require more service routes
Horizontal distribution ought to in a perfect world not expand more than 25 m from a vertical
service route. Longer separations will force punishments on the system design and increment the
profundity of horizontal service ducts. Position plant rooms at close to 10 stories separated
vertically.
6.1.2 Horizontal distribution of services
Customarily, the horizontal distribution of services is masterminded inside a horizontal layer
which is for the most part situated beneath the structure or more the suspended ceiling. This layer
suits the distribution system (conduits, channels, and so on), the terminal units and lighting units.
The raised floor is put on the floor chunk and obliges the electrical and communication cabling.
The lighting units are frequently situated inside the ceiling depth.
Three design cases might be conceived comparing to various auxiliary arrangements:
 A level piece with flexibility of service routing.
 A chunk and down stand beam arrangement.
 A long span shaft framework with office for service integration in the structural depth.
In traditional construction, the services are located in a horizontal layer or zone that is below the
floor structure. Therefore there are two separate zones between the ceiling and the floor; a
'structure' zone and 'services' zone. This is called complete 'separation' of services and structure.
Systems achieving complete separation of services are usually characterized by relatively short
spans and shallow construction depths.
6.2 Under-floor distribution
Air-conditioning system distribution and terminal equipment is generally located overhead in the
ceiling void with the cool supply air entering the room from ceiling diffusers. The solution of
under-floor and over-head service distribution is illustrated below.

Q no. 7: Heat loss and Heat gain Calculation:
7.1 Heat Loss
Table 5: Heat Loss through windows, walls, roof and floor
Object U value
W/m2K
Area
(m2)
Temp.
Difference
Heat loss
W
Windows 5.2 3.78 20 – 4= 16 -314.5
Walls 2.5 24 20 -4 = 16 -960
Roof 3.0 24.96 20 – 4 = 16 -1198
Ceiling and
floor
1.5 24.96 4 -149.7
Total heat Loss= -2622.8 W
7.1.1 Fabric Heat Loss= total heat loss of window, walls, roof and ceiling= -2622.8 W
7.1.2 Ventilation heat loss= 0.335 N V (temp difference)
Here N = No. of air changes per hour = 1.5 (given)
V = volume of room= 2.4 x 4.8 x 5.2 = 60m3
Vent. Heat Loss = 0.335 x 1.5 x 60 x 16 =-482.4 W
Fig 7: Service Distribution:

Total Heat Loss = 519.168 + 3880.416 = 4399.58 W
7.2 Heat Gain from Occupants:
Energy per person= 100 W, No. of people = 2
Heat gain from occupants= Energy per person x no. of occupants = 100 x 2 = +200 W
Assume 24/7 h
Net heat of Suite = (-4399.58 + 200) x 7 x 24 x 33 = -23282.493 W
7.3 Solid Fuel Mass required for a season of 33 weeks:
Efficiency of system = 67 %= 0.67
1 kg solid fuel produce = 31 x 10^6 joules
System produces energy using 1 kg fuel = 31 x 10^6 x 0.67 = 20.7 x 10^6 joules
Total energy required = 17960.254 x 3600 /1000 = 64656 .9 MJ
Fuel required for 25.9 Giga joules energy = 64656.9 / 20.7 x 10 ^6 = 3113 kg
Q no. 8: Comparing Mixes
8.1 PFA Slump and compressive Strength Test
A total of one hundred-twelve 100 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm concrete cubes with eight cubes
for each type of mixes were prepared for the determination of slump and compressive
strength test.
8.1.1 Workability (Slump Test)
The workability of the solid blends is measured by the distance across of the droop. It was
discovered that the workability was expanded by expanding the rate of PFA utilized. This
wonder might be because of the oil impact of spherical shape of most PFA particles with greater
workability.

8.1.2Compressive Strength
Figures underneath demonstrate the compressive quality advancement of concrete mixes with
various rates of PFA at various curing ages. It is seen from the assumed that the compressive
strengths for the control mix and all PFA blends have continuous strength improvement at all
testing ages.
Fig8: Workability VS percentage of PFA replacement

The use of PFA increases the workability and the optimum percentage of PFA for foamed
concrete to gain a higher short term compressive strength is between 20% - 30%.
8.2 OPC Mix
8.2.1 Workability (Slump Test)
A slump of 95 mm, 20 mm more than the target slump, was achieved after mixing. The mix was
observed to be moderately cohesive and no visible segregation was observed. The following
table illustrates the results found after the test has been done. (4)
8.2.2 Compressive Strength

The mix achieved a relatively low compressive strength, as it was design to. This low strength
was largely due to the use of a high water/binder ratio (0.70). The high water/binder ratio results
in a microstructure with a relatively high porosity due to the increased volume of capillary pores
as more water than that required for hydration is present in the mix. The OPC due to the
replacement with PFA results in delayed strength development and so the strength at 28 days
however may be slightly less than that of the use of 100% ordinary Portland cement.
8.3 Steel Needle Reinforcement
8.3.1 Slump Test
Workability of concrete is primarily influenced by consistency i.e. wetter blends will be more
workable than drier blends; however cement of a similar consistency may fluctuate in
workability. It can likewise be characterized as the relative plasticity of crisply blended concrete
as indicative of its workability.
Joining of steel needles diminishes the workability extensively. This circumstance unfavorably
influences the consolidation of new blend. Indeed, even delayed outer vibration neglects to
minimal the solid. The needle volume at which this circumstance is come to relies upon the
length and breadth of the needle. Another outcome of poor workability is non-uniform
appropriation of the needles. By and large, the workability and compaction standard of the mix is
enhanced through expanded water/cement ratio or by the utilization or some likeness thereof of
water decreasing admixtures.
8.3.2 Compressive Strength
The compressive strength is a measure of the solid's capacity to resist\loads which tend to
pulverize it. Compression tests on cylinders were performed to describe the compressive stress-
strain conduct of steel needle-reinforced concrete with a high reinforcing index. The

strengthening list, characterized as the result of the volume\fraction and the aspect ratio of the
strands, of steel needles inspected was as high as 1.7. Snared end needles of various lengths and
aspect ratios were considered. The test outcomes showed that a higher reinforcing index was
related with a higher strain at the pinnacle stretch and a higher toughness of Steel Needle
Reinforcement, up to a reinforcing index roughly equivalent to that comparing to a 2% needle
volume fraction. Including steel needles had little impact the modulus of elasticity and
compressive strength.
8.4 Steel reinforcing bars tensile strength
Following is the table showing the tensile strength of different steel reinforcing bars samples:

Bibliography
1. Psyhometric Chart.
http://www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/publications/standards_handbooks_cost/doc/stan_cs2/
cs2_2012.pdf.
2. Standard hand Books. s.l. :
http://www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/publications/standards_handbooks_cost/doc/stan_cs2/
cs2_2012.pdf, 2012.
3. Can BLDG Digests. CBD036.
http://web.mit.edu/parmstr/Public/NRCan/CanBldgDigests/cbd036_e.html.
4. Dew Point Tables. s.l. : http://inspectapedia.com/Energy/Dew_Point_Tables.php.
5. Aluminium. periodic Table. s.l. : http://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/13/aluminium.
6. Timber a construction Material. s.l. : https://www.slideshare.net/aadilkihan/timber-a-
construction-material.
7. Standard Hand books Costs. s.l. :
http://www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/publications/standards_handbooks_cost/doc/stan_cs2/
cs2_2012.pdf, 2012.