Cultural Anthropology: Subsistence Strategies and Social Structures

This essay provides a comprehensive overview of cultural anthropology, focusing on the diverse subsistence strategies and social organizations of various groups, including hunter-gatherers, tropical horticulturalists, and pastoralists. It explores how these groups adapt to their environments and sustain themselves, highlighting their unique approaches to food acquisition, resource management, and social structures. The essay examines the distinct characteristics of each group, contrasting their gender relations, religious beliefs, and practices, and political organizations. It also analyzes the impact of these social organizations on their lifestyles and subsistence methods. The essay further discusses how these groups interact with their environment, the challenges they face, and how they navigate the complexities of their societies. By comparing and contrasting these groups, the essay offers insights into the diversity of human cultures and the adaptive strategies employed by different societies to ensure their survival and well-being.

Running head: CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Cultural Anthropology
Name of the Student:
Name of the University:
Author’s Note:

1CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Table of Contents
Introduction................................................................................................................................2
Hunter gatherers and subsistence...............................................................................................3
Tropical horticulturalists and subsistence..................................................................................3
Pastoralists and subsistence........................................................................................................4
Social organizations...................................................................................................................4
Hunter gatherers and social organizations.................................................................................5
Tropical Horticulturalists and social organizations....................................................................6
Pastoralists and social organizations..........................................................................................6
Conclusion..................................................................................................................................7
References..................................................................................................................................9

2CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Introduction
“We wear clothes, and speak, and create civilizations, and believe we are more than wolves.
But inside us there is a word we cannot pronounce and that is who we are.”
The above quoted lines of Anthony Marra from his famous work “A Constellation of
Vital Phenomena” gives an overview of the notion which the majority of the people hold
about the human civilization in the present times. The human civilization grew thousands of
years ago and has undergone a considerable amount transformation since that particular time
(Bettinger, Garvey & Tushingham, 2015). It is a reflection of this particular fact that the
human beings no longer follow the same practices or the way of life which they used to have
thousands of years (Bettinger, Garvey & Tushingham, 2015). This particular change can be
seen as a reflection of the changing nature of the human intelligence and also the way the
human beings perceive the world around themselves in the present times (Stieglitz et al.,
2012). Therefore, it is seen that the human beings are no longer cave dwellers or live the life
of the nomads the way they used to live thousands of years ago (Stieglitz et al., 2012).
However, the success as well as the change attained by the human beings within the span of
last thousand years when viewed through the perspective of the entire human civilization
would seem to be just a façade in the true sense of the term (Spengler et al., 2014). It is
significant to note that inspite of all the advancements made by human beings in the various
walks of their lives there are particular sets of peoples like the “hunter-gatherers, tropical
horticulturalists, or pastoralists” and others who still in the present times lead their lives in the
traditional fashion of the nomads and had to take the help of various kinds of adaptations in a
bid to sustain themselves (Stieglitz et al., 2012). This essay will discuss about these set of
people and the various subsistence strategies used by them for the purpose of their survival.

3CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Furthermore, the essay will also talk about the gender relations as well as “religious beliefs
and practices” within their group.
Hunter gatherers and subsistence
The hunter gatherers are the individuals who depend on hunting as the main source
of their subsistence (Apicella et al., 2012). It is significant to note the process of hunting for
the various hunter gatherers is not only a source of subsistence for them but also a form of
pleasure which takes the majority of leisure time (Apicella et al., 2012). These individuals
generally like to live in the woods or on the outskirts of the forests and take a great amount of
pleasure in the various kinds of hunting activities (Apicella et al., 2012). In the opinion of
many people the various activities related to hunting is a not just a means of survival for them
but a source of pride for them (Bettinger, Garvey & Tushingham, 2015). It is significant to
note that the various hunter gatherers take a lot of pride in the kind of hunting skills which
they posses and the concept of hunting have become a part of identity (Apicella et al., 2012).
In the opinion of many scholars the various hunter gatherers have undergone a unique
adaptation which is in synchronization with the environment in which they dwell for the
purpose of their survival in the wilderness (Bettinger, Garvey & Tushingham, 2015).
Tropical horticulturalists and subsistence
The tropical horticulturalists are the individuals who for their subsistence depend of
the crops or the vegetables which they cultivate in their own garden or any plot of land
(Loponte et al., 2017). In the opinion of many people the various tropical horticulturalists are
the individuals who even in the modern times inspite of all the innovations as well as the
advancements in the various fields of technology live the way the various primitive men used
to live depending on just the produce of the land for the purpose of their subsistence (Loponte
et al., 2017). In addition to these, the various tropical horticulturalists do not even take the

4CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
help of the various modern forms of technology available in the agricultural field and produce
the exact of food which is required for their subsistence (Stieglitz et al., 2012). Therefore, in
a way it can be said that the various tropical horticulturalists of the present times represent a
small community of the primitive men who are residing within the framework of the modern
civilization of the human beings and occupy a very small part of it (Loponte et al., 2017).
Pastoralists and subsistence
The pastoralists, on the other hand, are the sheep or the cattle who are found in the
various diverse parts of the world (Spengler et al., 2014). However, it is seen that the nation
of Australia has become very famous in the recent times for the large number of pastoralists
which it has. Furthermore, the various pastoralists are the individuals who depend on the
products or the services derived from the animals or the cattle which they rear (Spengler et
al., 2014). In the present times it is seen that the various kinds of transactions which these
individuals do the various members of their own community are in terms of the cattle or the
sheep which they rear (Fernández-Giménez & Estaque, 2012). Therefore, it would be apt to
say that the various sheep as well as the cattle they for the purpose of their subsistence form
an integral part of their lives and the entire lacuna of their lives is centered round them
(Fernández-Giménez & Estaque, 2012). Thus, many scholars are of the opinion that the
various pastoralists are in a harmonious relationship with the natural world or more precisely
the animal world and in a way both the entities derive mutual benefits from the process
(Fernández-Giménez & Estaque, 2012).
Social organizations
The various social organizations like the gender relations, religious beliefs as well as
practices, political organization, “system of exchange”, kinship and others form an important
part of not only the modern society but also of the world of these individuals who are living

5CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
on the outskirts of the human civilization (Bettinger, Garvey & Tushingham, 2015). It is
significant to note that these social organizations are the factors which determine not only the
lifestyle of these individuals also the means which they adopt for the process of their
subsistence (Bettinger, Garvey & Tushingham, 2015). It is true that these individuals even in
the present times follow the pattern of lives lead by the primitive men yet these social
organizations have made a significant contribution to their lives (Stieglitz et al., 2012).
Hunter gatherers and social organizations
The community of the hunter gatherers follows the various precepts of the lives of the
nomadic or the primitive people and it is a reflection of this particular fact that the
community of the various hunter gatherers in the diverse parts of the world is a male
dominated one (Skoglund et al., 2012). Thus, the male members of the community are
imbued with the role of hunting and all other important activities whereas the women of the
community are related to all kinds of background roles like looking after the children,
cooking the meat brought by the male members of the family and others (Skoglund et al.,
2012). It is significant to note that these individual live by the rules of nature and therefore
they do not believe in the concept of education (Allen & Jones, 2016). However, they do
receive a bare minimum amount of education about the various skills which are required
during the time of hunting and the other kinds of related activities which are provided only to
the male members of the community and not to the female members of the community
(Erlandson, 2013). Another significant part of the lives of these individuals is the lack of the
religious belief which these people have towards the various religions of the world (Bettinger,
Garvey & Tushingham, 2015). Furthermore, it is also seen that some of these hunter
gatherers also worship various kinds of pagan Gods mostly related to the forest and warfare

6CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
(Bettinger, Garvey & Tushingham, 2015). Therefore, it would be apt to say that they are the
prototype of the primitive men in the modern day civilization of the human beings.
Tropical Horticulturalists and social organizations
In the community of the tropical horticulturalists, on the other hand, it is usually seen
that there is a reduced level of gender discrimination and as such there is no major distinction
between the male and the female members of the community (Stieglitz et al., 2012). It is
significant to note that both the male as well as the female members share the burden of the
cultivation of the crops as well as the vegetables depending on their capabilities as well as
skills (Stieglitz et al., 2012). Furthermore, the women in this particular community are not
just restricted to the various household choirs and in a way it can be said that they enjoy a
considerable amount of freedom within this particular community which is rarely enjoyed by
women in any other community of the contemporary world (Loponte et al., 2017). In the
present times it is generally seen that these people are taking the help of the various kinds of
recent technology for the purpose of the cultivation of the crops as well as vegetables and
furthermore the process of education is not restricted just to the male members of the
community as seen in the other communities. It is significant to note that these people in a
way can be said to be semi-religious people and they follow the various traditional beliefs as
well as practices of the religion of Christianity (Loponte et al., 2017). However, even in this
particular community it is seen that the individuals worship and perform offerings to the
various pagan Gods related to the sphere of agriculture (Anderson, 2016).

7CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Pastoralists and social organizations
In the community of the pastorals, on the other hand, it is generally seen that although
the power difference between the two genders is not that much prominent yet the major
important roles are delegated to the male members of the community (Fernández-Giménez &
Estaque, 2012). It is significant to note that the male members of the community are
delegated with the role to feed the cattle, perform the various transactions related to the cattle
and other important choirs (Fernández-Giménez & Estaque, 2012). However, the female
members of the community are delegated with the role of feeding the cattle and the sheep,
cleaning them and various related activities (Spengler et al., 2014). In the present times it is
seen that these people are taking the help of the various kinds of modern forms of cattle
rearing and also the tool of education for the development of their community (Spengler et
al., 2014). However, it is generally seen that for the purpose of education the male members
of the community receive priority over the female members of the community (Spengler et
al., 2014). The majority of the household choirs are performed by the female members of the
community. The religious beliefs which these individuals are mostly based on the ancient
precepts of the religion of Christianity (Spengler et al., 2014). In addition to this, the various
individuals belonging to this particular community also indulge in the worship of the various
kinds of pagan Gods and it is generally seen that these individuals also indulge in various
kinds of animal sacrifices as well (Spengler et al., 2014).
Conclusion
To conclude, even though the world in the present times has undergone much
transformation yet it is generally seen that there are various entities within the modern
civilization who live within the framework of the modern civilization still following the
various norms of the primitive men itself. Some of the typical examples of these types of

8CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
individuals are the various hunter gatherers, tropical horticulturalists, pastoralists and others.
It is significant to note that these individuals have undergone a kind of symbiotic relationship
with the environment in which they live for the purpose of their subsistence. Furthermore, it
is generally seen that the various social organizations related to the communities to which
they belong are very rudimentary in nature and not on par with the social organizations which
are normally seen in the contemporary human civilization.

9CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
References
Allen, M. W., & Jones, T. L. (2016). Violence and warfare among hunter-gatherers.
Routledge.
Anderson, E. N. (2016). Stephen Beckerman and Roberto Lizarralde: The Ecology of the
Barí: Rainforest Horticulturalists of South America. Human Ecology, 44(3), 393.
Apicella, C. L., Marlowe, F. W., Fowler, J. H., & Christakis, N. A. (2012). Social networks
and cooperation in hunter-gatherers. Nature, 481(7382), 497.
Bettinger, R. L., Garvey, R., & Tushingham, S. (2015). Hunter-gatherers: archaeological
and evolutionary theory. Springer.
Chazdon, R. L. (2014). Second growth: the promise of tropical forest regeneration in an age
of deforestation. University of Chicago Press.
Erlandson, J. M. (2013). Early hunter-gatherers of the California coast. Springer Science &
Business Media.
Fernández-Giménez, M. E., & Estaque, F. F. (2012). Pyrenean pastoralists’ ecological
knowledge: documentation and application to natural resource management and
adaptation. Human Ecology, 40(2), 287-300.
Kelly, R. L. (2013). The lifeways of hunter-gatherers: the foraging spectrum. Cambridge
University Press.
Loponte, D., Carbonera, M., Corriale, M. J., & Acosta, A. (2017). Horticulturists and oxygen
ecozones in the tropical and subtropical forests of Southeast South
America. Environmental Archaeology, 22(3), 247-267.

10CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Salzman, P. C. (2018). Pastoralists: Equality, hierarchy, and the state. Routledge.
Skoglund, P., Malmström, H., Raghavan, M., Storå, J., Hall, P., Willerslev, E., ... &
Jakobsson, M. (2012). Origins and genetic legacy of Neolithic farmers and hunter-
gatherers in Europe. Science, 336(6080), 466-469.
Spengler, R., Frachetti, M., Doumani, P., Rouse, L., Cerasetti, B., Bullion, E., & Mar'yashev,
A. (2014). Early agriculture and crop transmission among Bronze Age mobile
pastoralists of Central Eurasia. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B:
Biological Sciences, 281(1783), 20133382.
Stahl, P. W. (2014). Garden hunting. In Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology (pp. 2945-
2952). Springer New York.
Stieglitz, J., Blackwell, A. D., Gutierrez, R. Q., Linares, E. C., Gurven, M., & Kaplan, H.
(2012). Modernization, sexual risk-taking, and gynecological morbidity among
Bolivian forager-horticulturalists. PLoS One, 7(12), e50384.