Cyber Infrastructure: Evaluation of Authors' Arguments and Assertions

This essay provides an evaluation of arguments, assertions, and themes presented by various authors regarding cyber infrastructure. The paper begins by outlining the security problems associated with cyberspace, highlighting the increasing risks despite efforts to secure systems. It then analyzes the perspectives of authors like Clement, Bellovin, Saadawi, and FEMA, focusing on their arguments concerning critical infrastructure, the implementation of security measures, and risk management strategies. Common themes such as the continuous dependency on ICT and the importance of data security are discussed, alongside differences in their approaches to countering cyber-attacks. The essay also compares FEMA's Critical Infrastructure Protection Plan with Clement's key requirements, including the identification of critical sectors, balancing incentives, and resilience. The author then explores the application of knowledge-sharing strategies and information fusion in emergency operations. The paper concludes with a research question about government measures to counter cyberspace warfare and offers a personal perspective on the impact of cyberspace, emphasizing the need for vigilance and responsible infrastructure protection. The essay references several publications and suggests areas for further research and future directions.

Running head: CYBER INFRASTRUCTURE 1
Evaluation of the Arguments, Assertions and Themes of Different Authors Regarding Cyber
Infrastructure
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CYBER INFRASTRUCTURE 2
Evaluation of the Arguments, Assertions and Themes of Different Authors Regarding Cyber
Infrastructure
What are some of the security problems that are related to cyberspace? Recent researches
have revealed that the risks associated with computer systems have increased greatly despite the
efforts that have been put in place to secure these systems. Thus, data is vulnerable to
exploitation by third parties and hackers. The main purpose of this paper is to analyze how
different authors view cyber infrastructure and critical infrastructure. The topics to be covered
includes; argument and thesis, Common themes and research for further research.
Argument and Thesis
Clement
In his book titled “Cyber Security and Global Independence”, Dave Clement argues that
there is continuous dependence on interconnected infrastructure. Food and water are some of the
sectors that have been viewed as critical (Clemente, 2013). He also argues that information
technologies play vital roles to ensure that these sectors are running smoothly hence
indispensable. However, security of computer systems have become very sophisticated despite
measures that have been undertaken by various organizations to secure these systems. His
argument focuses on what is critical. Inadequate application of security measures result in
vulnerability, thus enabling hackers to gain access to sensitive information hence increasing
cyber terrorism (Clemente, 2013). Therefore, there is a need to counter cyber terrorism around
the world. Adapt and invest are some of measures undertaken by governments to defend their
important infrastructures.
Bellovin, Bradner, Diffie, Landau & Rexford (2011)

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In this article “Can it really work”, the authors Bellovin, Bradner, Diffie and Rexford
(2011) have focused on the reasons why implementation of EISTEIN failed. This comes as a
result of the government efforts to ensure that its infrastructure has been protected. Initially, the
U.S. experienced several attacks not limited to IP spooning and DDoS. It is revealed that the
number of attacks increased greatly in 2000, hence plans to counter these attacks were not
inevitable. Following these developments, the process of protecting agencies from such
malevolent activities started in 2004 (Bellovin et al., 2011). The first phase is characterized by
deployment of EINSTEIN, which performed different tasks such as correlation and detecting
unusual activities in computer systems, and afterwards, attempts to halt the operations. Besides,
it keeps track of network traffic. In 2007, National Security Agency (NSA) intended to extent
implementation of EINSTEIN to private networks (Bellovin et al., 2011). However, the process
of implementing this program remained futile due to several factors such as scale and legal
issues.
Saadawi & Jordan (2011)
In their book titled “Cyber Security Protection”, Saadawi & Jordan (2011) have focused
on issues related to information security. Currently, the rate at which people, governments and
organizations depend on the internet has increased vastly. Consequently, the number of attacks
has increased. Recent research has revealed that organizations that deal with big data are targeted
mostly with an aim of getting access to financial information. Hence, organizations need to
integrate security mechanisms in their systems to counter unauthorized access. Besides, privacy
standards are vital to reduce risks (Saadawi & Jordan, 2011). In addition, citizen engagement
should be put into consideration when dealing with cybercrime, hence changing public policy is
not an option. However, protecting information has become very challenging due to emergence

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trends in ICT such as distributed systems as a way of increasing reliability (Saadawi & Jordan,
2011). In future, flexible security need to be considered for dealing with threats as cyber
attackers keep on improving their techniques over time.
FEMA (2013)
Fema (2013) has focused on “Critical Infrastructure Security and Resilience”. To attain
security, the U.S. government need to undertake security measures not limited to reducing risks.
For instance, the President of the U.S. called for National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP)
update. This was influenced by changes in operating environments. The process of protecting
infrastructures cannot be achieved by the U.S. government only. Hence, individual efforts is
equally vital and leads to success of the entire process. Despite the fact that private organizations
are responsible to protect their own systems, partnerships play an important role in identifying
vulnerabilities as well as sharing information about how a particular problem can be solved by
using optimal solution among various alternatives. The following are risk management steps;
setting objectives, identifying infrastructure, risk analysis, application of appropriate measures
and measure effectiveness (Fema, 2013).
Common Themes
Although cyber security has been discussed by different scholars such as Clement,
Saadawi and Jordan, there exists some common aspects. For instance, all authors argue that there
is continuous dependency on ICT. For example, Clement (2013) argues that information
technologies play vital roles to ensure that different sectors are running smoothly hence
indispensable. Besides, Saadawi and Jordan (2011) argues that the rate at which people and
governments depend on the internet has increased greatly. Apart from dependency on ICT, all

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authors have also argued that data security should be put into consideration. For instance,
Bellovin et al., (2011) argues that the United States has undertaken several measures following
cyber-attacks such as IP spooning. On the other hand, Fema (2013) has explained steps for
mitigating risks ranging from setting objectives to measure effectiveness.
Differences in Cyber security and Critical Infrastructure Assessment
Other than common aspects on cyber security, there are also some differences on how
critical infrastructure has been examined. For instance, each author has different perspective in
relation to different ways that can be used to counter cyber-attacks. For instance, Clement (2013)
has explained clearly that the process of reducing attacks is very complicated and sometimes
becomes impossible. Clement has linked sophisticated nature of attacks to increased
interconnections. His view on cyber security is that attacks will increase as long as
interconnectivity increases. On the contrary, Saadawi & Jordan (2011) have different views
regarding increased number of attacks. They argues that failure of software firms to implement
and integrate security mechanisms properly has increased vulnerabilities. Besides, they also
argues that governments have focused on detecting attacks rather than putting more effort on
prevention.
FEMA's Critical Infrastructure Protection Plan and Clemente (2011) Key
Requirements
Clement (2013) has stated that determining critical sector is the key requirement that
should be considered while protecting infrastructure. Fema (2013) has addressed the aspect of
critical sector through infrastructure identification where an organization is required to choose an
asset that is vital in its day to day business operations. The asset should be selected after a careful

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analysis on existing interdependencies. Apart from critical sector, Clement (2013) also argues
that balancing incentives is vital. This has been addressed by Fema who has put it clearly that
protecting infrastructures cannot be achieved by the U.S. government only. Hence, individual
efforts is equally vital and leads to success of the entire process. Also, private sectors should not
be ignored rather included in protection plan. Clement (2013) also suggested that resilience is
another key requirement. Similarly, Fema (2013) has insisted on the importance of resilience
investment. Finally, prioritization has been addressed by Fema. For instance, Fema (2013) argues
that risks should be managed basing on their impacts.
Application of Knowledge Sharing Strategies and Information Fusion in the EOC
There are different types of cyber-attacks. For instance, internet attacks has been
influenced by increase of internet usage. To counter terrorism, information is needed on a real
time basis (Hennessy, Patterson & Lin, 2003). This information can be used to make better
decisions. From findings, it is established that EAC tasks are characterized by complexity.
However, they are carried out successfully. This is attained through personal interactions. These
findings can be adopted in my state, for instance, tools such as E-team is very vital as it can be
used to enhance collaboration (Xia, Becerra-Fernandez, Gudi, & Rocha-Mier, 2011). Also,
people should be trained as emergencies are unpredictable. Training is essential as it helps one to
develop skills in a certain field such as phone services.
Research or Policy Question for Further Research
Research question: What are some of the measures that can be undertaken by governments to
counter cyberspace warfare?
Conclusion

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In conclusion, this paper has focused on cyber infrastructure. This topic is important as it
can enable governments to understand how terrorists are carrying out their harmful acts by using
cyber space, and afterwards, integrate necessary mechanisms to counter these acts. Besides, this
paper has analyzed how different authors view cyber infrastructure. For instance, Clement argues
that information technologies play vital roles to ensure that critical sectors are running smoothly
hence indispensable. On the other hand, Fema has outlined steps for risk mitigation. On my
opinion, cyberspace has impacted both negatively and positively on the society. It has caused
adverse effects such as encouraging harmful acts such as hacking and terrorism. Therefore, I
suggest that every person should be vigilant and responsible in protecting infrastructure. Readers
should follow my views as it can help in enhancing security. In future direction, cyber space will
be applied in every aspect of life, thus organizations should focus on improving security. The
findings in part 2 can be adopted in my state, for instance, tools such as E-team is very vital as it
can be used to enhance collaboration. Also, training is essential as it helps one to develop skills
in a certain field such as phone services, hence vital for emergency operations.

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References
Bellovin, S. M., Bradner, S. O., Diffie, W, Landau, S. & Rexford, J. (2011). Can it really work?
Problems with extending EINSTEIN 3 to critical infrastructure. Harvard National Security
Journal. 3.1, pp. 1-38
Clemente, D. (2013). Cyber security and global interdependence: What is critical? Programme
Report. Retrieved from
https://www.chathamhouse.org/publications/papers/view/189645#
FEMA. (2013). National infrastructure protection plan. Retrieved from
https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/national-infrastructure-protection-plan-
2013-508.pdf
Hennessy, J.L., Patterson, D.A, & Lin, H.S. (Eds.). (2003). Information technology for
counterterrorism: Immediate actions and future possibilities. Retrieved from
https://www.nap.edu/read/10640/
Saadawi, T & Jordan, J. Jr. (Eds.). (2011). Cyber infrastructure protection. Carlisle Barracks:
U.S. Army War College, Strategic Studies Institute
Xia, W., Becerra-Fernandez, I., Gudi, A., & Rocha-Mier, J. (2011). Emergency management task
complexity and knowledge-sharing strategies. Cutter IT Journal, 24(1), pp. 20-25