University Assignment: Life Stages Development Theories Report

This report provides a comprehensive overview of human life stages, from infancy to older adulthood, exploring physical, intellectual, emotional, and social development at each stage. It delves into the potential effects of various life factors, including socio-economic, genetic, biological, environmental, and lifestyle influences. The report examines the impact of both predictable (marriage, starting school) and unpredictable (domestic violence, death) life events on individual development. It analyzes two prominent theories of aging – disengagement and activity theory – discussing their application to an individual's lifestyle and the associated physical and psychological changes. Furthermore, the report evaluates the influence of nature (biology) and nurture (social factors) on development and assesses the effects of physical changes on self-esteem and self-confidence, culminating in an evaluation of aging theories on health and social care.

Running head: THEORIES RELATING TO DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE STAGES
Theories relating to development of life stages
Name of the University
Name of the Student
Author note

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THEORIES RELATED TO DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE STAGES
Table of Contents
Describe physical intellectual, emotional and social development for each of the life stages of an
individual (P1).................................................................................................................................2
Explain Potential effects of Five Different Life Factors and the Development on the Individual
(P2)..................................................................................................................................................3
Explain the influences of two predictable and two unpredictable major life events on the
development of an individual (P3)..................................................................................................5
Explain two theories of aging (Disengagement theory and activity theory) (P4)...........................6
Discuss how these two theories of aging apply to an individual and the impacts they would
have on their lifestyle (M2).........................................................................................................7
Explain the physical and psychological changes which may be associated with aging (P5)..........8
Discuss the effects on self-esteem and self-confidence of the physical changes associated with
ageing (M3).................................................................................................................................9
Evaluate the influence of the two major theories of ageing on the health and social care provision
required for your chosen individual (D2)........................................................................................9
What effects influences of nature (biology: genetic inheritance) and influences of nurture (social
factors: • environment) have on their development (M1)...........................................................10
For two stages of your individual’s life, write an evaluation of how their development (PIES)
may have been affected by nature or nurture (D1)....................................................................11
References:....................................................................................................................................12

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THEORIES RELATED TO DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE STAGES
Describe physical intellectual, emotional and social development for each of the life stages
of an individual (P1).
Physical development
Life of humans has been divided into various stages starting from conception to death.
The physical development begins prior to the birth of the child and continues until puberty.
Humans develop different physical characteristics that include internal and external body organs.
However, the development is different in males and females. The differences are visible in the
sexual development where girls’ breasts enlarge, pubic hairs grow, menstrual period starts and
fat layers occur under the skin. Males on the other hand experience the enhancement of testes
and penis along with the development of pubic and facial hair (Salyers and McKee 2016). These
developments occur between the ages of 11 to 13 years. This is followed by adolescence and
adulthood.
Intellectual development
Humans develop intellectual senses from birth that is characterized as sensory-motor
stage beginning from birth until two years. In this stage, babies develop ability to sense objects
and perform motor actions. This stage precedes the pre-operational stage where children start
acquiring the ability to talk, however without knowing understanding the logical consequences.
Then comes the concrete operational stage where practical situations help build logical thinking
in children. The last is the formal operational stage that is characterized by logical thinking and
ability to draw conclusions from abstract thinking.

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THEORIES RELATED TO DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE STAGES
Emotional Development
Emotional development at infancy is typified by attachment with the carer. The
emotional development at this stage defines how the children cope with uncertainties in life. In
the next stage that is childhood, humans develop the sense of knowing who are they and their
relationship with other members. This stage is vulnerable as the children might develop either
confidence or sense of failure for the rest of their lives. Emotional development of identity,
intimacy, staying involved and making sense of life are visible at adolescence, adulthood and
older adulthood respectively.
Social development
The social development in humans at infancy is characterized by interactions with carers.
They start reacting to human faces like smiling at them and responding to the words spoken to
them by adults. In the childhood stage, humans start to learn and understand social roles within
the confinement of their homes amongst their family members (Irner et al. 2014). Secondary
social learning is the feature of the adolescence stage where humans develop a sense of self-
worth. This stage also enables humans to develop a sense of freedom from family and explore
their social identity. In the following stages of adulthood and older adulthood, friendship plays
an important role. Sexual relationships also dominate the early adulthood stage. Older adulthood
is typified by closer bonds with family and friends.
Explain Potential effects of Five Different Life Factors and the Development on the
Individual (P2).
The Five Life Factors that have an effect on an individual are:

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THEORIES RELATED TO DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE STAGES
Socio-economic
This factor examines the affect economic activities can have on an individual’s social
process. The individual’s development depends on the local and global economic condition as
these determine the employment status, poverty, discrimination and other social factors of an
individual (Pembrey, Saffery and Bygren 2014).
Genetic
It deals with the means by which an individual inherits behavioral and physical
characteristics. Development of genes determines an individual’s blood group, the color of their
eyes and other such features.
Biological
Blood relations refer to the biological life factor of an individual. It has been stated that
biological factors do not require parents to be susceptible to any disease or illness for their
children to acquire it.
Environmental
Environment plays an important role in the development if an individual. Having access
to house, healthcare, social services, being affected by pollution, all affect an individual’s
development.
Lifestyle

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THEORIES RELATED TO DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE STAGES
When an individual decides to choose a lifestyle dominated by alcohol, smoking, drugs,
he or she chooses to mar his or her development. Nutrition, religion, values and attitudes are also
part of lifestyle that effects development.
Explain the influences of two predictable and two unpredictable major life events on the
development of an individual (P3).
Events that take place throughout an individual’s life may sometimes be predictable or
unpredictable. These events play a major role in changing the direction and shaping an
individual’s life (Heckman and Mosso 2014). The two predictable life events include marriage
and starting school and unpredictable events involve domestic violence and death of a friend or
relative.
Predictable life events
Marriage is predictable because every individual plans to get married at a certain stage in
life. However, marriage plays an important role in an individual’s life as it decides how the rest
of his or her life is going to span out. Apart from that, marriage also shapes how an individual
handles responsibilities. Thus, marriage has both positive and negative influences on an
individual.
Starting school is another predictable life event. After attaining a certain age when
children begin to understand things, they are admitted to schools to have proper knowledge.
Children discover their potential at school with gradual development. They start to learn new
things that influence their lives throughout. Making new friends, socializing with people are
some of the influences school has on an individual’s life.

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THEORIES RELATED TO DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE STAGES
Unpredictable life events
Domestic violence is an unpredictable life event that influences an individual’s entire life.
It is not something that an individual plans to go through and hence it is an unpredictable event.
Domestic violence, that involves physical exploitation, is the result of a predictable life event
that is marriage and hence it is evident that these life events have visible influence. Victims of
domestic violence are compelled to consider themselves as inferior and weak and this influences
the rest of their lives (Falconier et al. 2015). Once happy and confident individuals, turn out to be
morbid and lifeless.
The death of a close friend or relative is another unpredictable life event. Although death
is a universal truth and cannot be averted, it still influences an individual’s life especially when it
happens to their close ones. Accidental deaths are more unpredictable because no one can predict
accidents. When an individual loses his or her close friend, it changes their lives completely.
They lose hope in life and they are engulfed with negative feelings. It influences their physical
well being as well.
Explain two theories of aging (Disengagement theory and activity theory) (P4).
Disengagement Theory
Elaine Cumming and Earl Henry proposed the disengagement theory of ageing in 1961.
According to this theory, older people tend to disengage from social activities; they shun every
opportunity to interact with others. The authors argued that people in their old ages become
isolated and are hardly concerned with others’ expectations. The theory received wide
recognition during that time with many scholars agreeing with it. However, it also received
criticisms for generalizing the attitude of older people. Collins (2014) argued that no statistical

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THEORIES RELATED TO DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE STAGES
data was provided by the theorists to confirm their theory. He further stated that many older
people do connect socially with others and do not always disengage from social life.
Activity Theory
This theory was proposed as a development to the disengagement theory. Rovert J.
Havighurst developed the theory in 1961. The theory argued that older people although
disengage with social connections; they also need to stay active. Remaining active would help
them be in the limits and not go too far with disengagement. Aldwin et al. (2017) while
supporting the activity theory stated that staying mentally active is vital for older people as it
would help them develop interest in life and cherish others’ companies. He further pointed out
that extreme disengagement might lead to stagnation and deterioration of physical and mental
skills.
Discuss how these two theories of aging apply to an individual and the impacts they would
have on their lifestyle (M2).
The Disengagement Theory states that when an individual attains old age, he or she tends
to detach or disengage from social life. An individual gains experience with age, and with
experience, disinterest. Many problems arise with age, which results in a reduction in the activity
of the individual. These include amongst others, ill health that causes trouble for the individual to
interact with others. An individual’s lifestyle transforms completely as he or she turns from
being jubilant and active to morose and detached.

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THEORIES RELATED TO DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE STAGES
Activity Theory states that older people could live a happy and satisfied life if they are
allowed to stay active. It depends upon the individual whether he or she wants to live a life in
isolation and feeling of unworthiness or a life filled with activities and engagement.
Explain the physical and psychological changes which may be associated with aging (P5)
Every individual experiences ageing differently. Some develop severe problems related
to the process of ageing at the turn of fifty or sixty while others spend healthy life even until
ninety (Bherer 2015). Two major changes with ageing are:
Physical changes
The physical changes that occur while an individual ages include, skin, bones, muscles,
organs, senses and so on. Ageing makes an individual appear weak with wrinkled skin, less
dense bones, stiff joints and reduced height due to compressed cartilage. The sense of hearing
and visual also weakens with age. In females, menopause is one of the first signs of physical
change that indicates ageing. Other physical changes that occur in an individual’s body are their
respiratory, cardiovascular, cognitive and nervous system.
Psychological changes
Many psychological changes occur during the process of ageing. Erik Erikson, in his
work on life stages talked about ‘ego-integrity’ in older people. Ego integrity means making
sense of life even at older age (Dunkel and Harbke 2017). This largely defines the psychological
changes associated with ageing. Older people often feel they no longer possess any worth and
that they are a burden to others. This feeling is referred to as ageism. Role changes, loss of
partner, increase in free time and retirement effects further affect ageing psychologically.

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THEORIES RELATED TO DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE STAGES
Discuss the effects on self-esteem and self-confidence of the physical changes associated
with ageing (M3).
Physical changes that occur while ageing, cause various other related changes as well.
The most visible change apart from physical wearing out is the psychological change. With
growing age, an individual starts experience changes in his or her physical appearance and
capability. To cite an example, the skin starts to get loose and wrinkled, the muscles become
softer, and the bones become weaker. Old age also effects stamina that starts to decrease
gradually. Once strong and tout, gorgeous and beautiful individual turns becomes weak and worn
out (Steiger et al. 2014). This causes great damage to the self-esteem and confidence of an
individual. The lives of celebrities provide good evidence of the effects on self-esteem and
confidence that occur with physical changes while aging. It has been a trend that an actor who
once held a top position in the industry and had huge fan base becomes unknown after getting
old. This sometimes proves detrimental to their self-esteem and confidence, as they feel
unworthy of love and fame.
Evaluate the influence of the two major theories of ageing on the health and social care
provision required for your chosen individual (D2).
Aging compels individuals to give up on certain things in life, as their physical strength
disallows them to continue with the usual activities (Cameron et al. 2014). Older individuals then
are left with choices to either disengage from social life or participate in activities to stay
connected and active. According to the disengagement theory, as already mentioned, older
people tend to isolate themselves from friends and families and develop a sense of unworthiness
or inferiority. The activity theory presents a modified version of the disengagement theory where
it says that older people must be encouraged to stay active so that they could get along with life

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THEORIES RELATED TO DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE STAGES
as usual. Health and social care provisions have been developed for the older people to allow
them choose their own way of life. Quality health and social care services do not force older
people to engage in activities against their wishes. Some older people are also given the
opportunity to choose services at home (Kvaal, Halding and Kvigne 2014). These services
provide an atmosphere for the older people where they are free to choose any life they wish. This
proves as an evidence of the influence of the two theories of aging on health and social care
provision.
What effects influences of nature (biology: genetic inheritance) and influences of nurture
(social factors: • environment) have on their development (M1).
The debate whether nature influences human development or nurture is still ongoing with
many experts arguing for and against the two factors. However, it needs mentioning that both
nature – the genes and nurture – the environment have an evident influence of an individual’s
development. The influence is sometimes positive and at times negative. Genetic inheritance that
falls under nature has apparent influences on human development as it involves their skin color,
sex, eyes and so on. Nurture however, influence human development in different ways
(Witherington and Lickliter 2017). The environment, in which an individual grows, does have an
impact on his behavior. Twins are perhaps the most evident example of nurture influence.
Despite being biologically connected, twins have their own individuality. They think and act
differently.
Experts although agree that nature and nurture both interact to influence human
development; these two concepts are still to be studied separately. According to Zaky (2015),
rather questioning whether nature has an influence or nurture, one should now ask which factor

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THEORIES RELATED TO DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE STAGES
has more influence on human development. In order to track an individual’s personality, it is
important to consider both nature and nurture factors.
For two stages of your individual’s life, write an evaluation of how their development
(PIES) may have been affected by nature or nurture (D1).
The development of children begins the moment they come out of their mother’s womb.
They inherit the genes of their parents that are visible form the way the look. Eyes, skin color,
built- all these features are inherited by the children genetically from their parents. The broader
environments in which children are brought up also have an influence on their behavior. To cite
an example, when children start going to school, they observe their teachers and other classmates
and inherit some of their features. Gradually, they develop habits and behaviors that are not
inherent of their parents. In recent times, critics have argued that nature does have an edge of
nurture when it comes to intellectual (Bbc.com 2018).
In the adolescence stage, this nature-nurture interaction is exposed more clearly.
Adolescence is the stage when an individual goes through the phase of being a child to attaining
early adulthood. Nature influences some of their traits such as the way they walk or talk, and
even their voice (Theconversation.com 2018). On the other hand, many characteristics are
acquired from the environment they are exposed to, that influences their appearance as well as
behavior. To give an example, an individual might inhabit drug or alcohol addiction despite the
fact that his or her parents had no history of drug or alcohol abuse. In addition, he or she could be
diagnosed with a disease that had no genetic connection with his or her parents.

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THEORIES RELATED TO DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE STAGES
References:
Aldwin, C.M., Igarashi, H., Gilmer, D.F. and Levenson, M.R., 2017. Health, illness, and optimal
aging: Biological and psychosocial perspectives. Springer Publishing Company.
Bbc.com 2018. Grades 'more nature than nurture'. [online] BBC News. Available at:
http://www.bbc.com/news/health-25337953 [Accessed 11 Jan. 2018].
Bherer, L., 2015. Cognitive plasticity in older adults: effects of cognitive training and physical
exercise. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1337(1), pp.1-6.
Cameron, A., Lart, R., Bostock, L. and Coomber, C., 2014. Factors that promote and hinder joint
and integrated working between health and social care services: a review of research
literature. Health & social care in the community, 22(3), pp.225-233.
Collins, N., 2014. A brief introduction to the Social theory of Ageing and Ageism.
Dunkel, C.S. and Harbke, C., 2017. A review of measures of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial
development: Evidence for a general factor. Journal of Adult Development, 24(1), pp.58-76.
Falconier, M.K., Nussbeck, F., Bodenmann, G., Schneider, H. and Bradbury, T., 2015. Stress
from daily hassles in couples: Its effects on intradyadic stress, relationship satisfaction, and
physical and psychological well‐being. Journal of marital and family therapy, 41(2), pp.221-235.
Heckman, J.J. and Mosso, S., 2014. The economics of human development and social
mobility. Annu. Rev. Econ., 6(1), pp.689-733.

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THEORIES RELATED TO DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE STAGES
Irner, T.B., Teasdale, T.W., Nielsen, T., Vedal, S. and Olofsson, M., 2014. Cognitive, emotional
and social development in adolescents born to substance using women. Scandinavian journal of
psychology, 55(4), pp.319-325.
Kvaal, K., Halding, A.G. and Kvigne, K., 2014. Social provision and loneliness among older
people suffering from chronic physical illness. A mixed‐methods approach. Scandinavian
journal of caring sciences, 28(1), pp.104-111.
Pembrey, M., Saffery, R. and Bygren, L.O., 2014. Human transgenerational responses to early-
life experience: potential impact on development, health and biomedical research. Journal of
medical genetics, pp.jmedgenet-2014.
Salyers, F. and McKee, C., 2016. The young adolescent learner. Retrieved on Mei, 14, p.2016.
Steiger, A.E., Allemand, M., Robins, R.W. and Fend, H.A., 2014. Low and decreasing self-
esteem during adolescence predict adult depression two decades later. Journal of personality and
social psychology, 106(2), p.325.
Theconversation.com 2018. Genes are not destiny: environment and education still matter when
it comes to intelligence. [online] The Conversation. Available at:
https://theconversation.com/genes-are-not-destiny-environment-and-education-still-matter-when-
it-comes-to-intelligence-63775 [Accessed 11 Jan. 2018].
Witherington, D.C. and Lickliter, R., 2017. Transcending the Nature-Nurture Debate through
Epigenetics: Are We There Yet?. Human Development, 60(2-3), pp.65-68.
Zaky, E.A., 2015. Journal of Child & Adolescent Behavior.