Report on Biological Actions of Vernonia Amygdalina and Diabetes

This report provides a detailed overview of Vernonia amygdalina, commonly known as bitter leaf, a plant found in Africa and Asia, and its various biological actions. The report explores the plant's traditional uses, including its application in treating malaria and other ailments, and discusses its nutritional values and diverse bioactive compounds, such as flavonoids and tannins. It examines the pathophysiology, epidemiology, and types of diabetes, including type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes, along with the short-term and long-term health effects of diabetes and the plant's potential role in diabetes management. The report also delves into the toxicology effects of Vernonia amygdalina and provides a comprehensive analysis of the plant's impact on various health conditions.

Biological Actions of Vernonia Amygdalina1
BIOLOGICAL ACTIONS OF VERNONIA AMYGDALINA
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Biological Actions of Vernonia Amygdalina2
BIOLOGICAL ACTIONS OF VERNONIA AMYGDALINA
Vernonia amygdalina is in layman's language called the bitter leaf. It is very famous and it is a
plant found mostly in the parts of Africa and Asia. It is one of the most cultivated species of
genus Vernonia and a prominent species in the Asteraceae family. It produces no seeds and it is
cultivated through planting its stem in tropical areas (Ofori, Anjarwalla, Jamnadass, Stevenson,
& Smith 2013). It has a bitter taste due to the presence of saponins, tannins, glycosides, and
alkaloids hence making the leaves act as a bittering agent and also used as a hop substitute in
controlling microbial contamination during the brewing of beer with no reduction of the malt's
quality. Its harvesting is done twice per month until the plant reaches seven years (Vasorelaxant
Properties of Vernonia Amygdalina Ethanol Extract and Its Possible Mechanism 2017). These
leaves have a lot of beneficial uses. It is mostly used for food and acts as a traditional medicine
where before consumption, its bitter taste and odor are reduced through a lot of water or boiling
it. It is used in treating malaria where medicine man from Uganda produces a greenish powder,
packs it into sachets and then urges the patients to use them in preparing tea (Eddouks 2016). It
is also used as soup and also used in the production of honey wine named Tei in Ethiopia. The
decoctions of leaves and roots are used in ethnomedicine in the treatment of hiccups, fevers,
kidney problems and also stomach disorders (Vernonia Amygdalina Protect Joints by
Suppressing Chondrocyte Differentiation in Osteoarthritis Rat Model 2018). This plant contains
diverse bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, saponins, phenolics, steroidal glycosides,
tannins, triterpenoids and other types of sesquiterpene lactones. These bioactive compounds
make Vernonia have different pharmacological properties. These properties are antimalarial,
antioxidant, laxative, anti-fungal, antimicrobial, antithrombotic, cathartic, hypoglycemic,

Biological Actions of Vernonia Amygdalina3
anticancer, antifertility, and others that make it too beneficial in curing various human conditions
(Neffati, Najjaa, & Máthé 2017).
The leaves of V. amygdalina nutritional values are many. Its leaves, roots, and stem are enriched
with amino acids, carbohydrates, vitamins, fibers, fats, and proteins. This composition varies
from one location to the other due to geographical location, the plant's ecology, the conditions of
harvesting, genetic and also the surrounding environment. Their leaves are made up of
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, iodine, amino acids, glycine, hydrolysate, total oxalate, among
others, (Hasibuan, Harahap, Sitorus, & Satria 2018).
The bioactive compounds named above inhibit the growth of the cells that result in breast cancer
because it possesses antimicrobial and antitumoral properties. These properties lead to a
significant activity of bactericidal against the gram bacteria, (Hasibuan, Harahap, Sitorus, &
Satria 2018).
Their anti-inflammatory property is used in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders
Flavonoids, tannins and saponins in these leaves contain anti-oxidants and participate in strong
antioxidant activities in the human body. The triterpenoids these plants contain can be used in
functional foods, in cosmetics, in products of healthcare and are extracted from the leaf, root, and
stems. Its extracts reduce malondialdehyde levels and scavenge free radical cells where they
interfere with induced detoxification DNA binding in some factors of transcription. The extract
also inhibits bleaching B – carotene and peroxidation.
The presence of phytochemicals, vitamins and various other nutrients in the extracts of these
leaves gives them an antidiabetic effect. The antidiabetic effect involves reducing the level of
blood glucose in people.

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These leaf extracts possess protective effects against hepatotoxicity through its antioxidant
mechanism of action and the presence of antioxidant bioactive compounds. Their action is also
because of their early maturation where they release leucocytes and thus these leaves extracts act
as an immune booster in various health conditions.
The toxicology effects of V. amygdalina are that it leads to a significant decrease in red blood
cell count and increased dependence on its dose. The extracts are non-toxic, and this has been
proven through conducting various tests using rats and chicken.
Pathophysiology of diabetes
Diabetes occurs as a result of the misbalance insulin’s demand and production. There are three
types of diabetes namely diabetes type 1, diabetes type 2, and gestational diabetes.
Diabetes type 1 comes by when the immune system of the human body attacks and destroys the
beta cells of the pancrease that produce insulin. When there comes this beta-cell deficiency, it
follows a complete deficiency of insulin. Diabetes 1 is an autoimmune disease where there is the
presence of anti-insulin cells in the blood. They lead to lymphocytic infiltration and pancrease
islets destruction which. The onset of diabetes 1 takes place rapidly and one gets completely
affected within the first one week (Boeder & Edelman 2019). There are autoimmune conditions
associated with diabetes type 1 which include vitiligo and hypothyroidism. This type of diabetes
needs therapy of insulin and does not respond to insulin stimulating oral drugs (Marchand,
Garnier, Thivolet, Nicolino, & Fabien 2018).
Pathophysiology of diabetes type 2 is that it is a condition that comes by as a result of a relative
deficiency of insulin in the human body. The body produces inadequate amounts of insulin and
thus cannot meet the insulin needs. There is a deficiency of beta cells in the body followed by the

Biological Actions of Vernonia Amygdalina5
resistance of peripheral insulin (STEVENS 2016). Peripheral insulin resistance, in this case,
means that there is low blood sugar-also called hypoglycemia irrespective of high insulin levels
in the blood. This is due to the changes in the receptors of insulin that cause insulin actions. The
insulin resistance experienced is a result of obesity and to cure this condition, patients are
administered insulin after oral drugs fail to stimulate adequate insulin release.
Gestational diabetes occurs during pregnancy (Petry 2014). It occurs when there are excessive
counter hormones of insulin during the gestation period. This leads to insulin resistance state and
high blood sugar levels in the expectant mother. Deceptive insulin receptors may be witnessed
during this period.
The pathophysiology behind symptoms and complications of diabetes is that there is associated
with high thirst as a result of increased blood glucose that makes blood very concentrated (Nair
& Peate 2015). There is also associated with increased urination as a result of excess intake of
fluids and urination induced by glucose. Patients suffer weight loss as a result of calories that are
lost through frequent urination and increased hunger because the body is in a state of craving for
more glucose due to excessive loss of glucose through urination. Also, patients experience poor
healing of wounds and increased infections as a result of diminished immunity and good
nutrition source of microbes due to high blood glucose. Patients may suffer heart disease due to
large vessels of blood and eye damages as a result of fine retina blood vessels after their
exposure to high levels of sugar. Another pathophysiology includes kidneys damage due to
proteinuria and nerve damages that affects legs and arms and diabetic foot occurs as a result of
damaged peripheral nerves and the affliction of blood vessels. Diabetic Ketoacidosis is brought
about by type 1 diabetes due to the complete lack of insulin and the body's reliance on fatty acids
for energy. Non-ketotic hyperosmolarity is another sign and symptom pathophysiology brought

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about by increased blood sugar especially in type 2 diabetes where there is enough insulin that
suppresses the synthesis of ketone (Nair & Peate 2015).
The epidemiology of diabetes
Diabetes is increasing at a very high rate in the globe day by day. The recent 8th edition by IDF
Diabetes Atlas shows that within every seven seconds. A person dies out of diabetes or its
associated complications (World Health Organization 2016). It is approximated that about 4
million people die per year due to this condition and 50% of those deaths are of people aged
below 50 years of age. The global prevalence of diabetes is at a confidence interval of 95% at the
standardized age of 20 to 79 in the globe in 2017. It is estimated that by the year 2045, the
diabetes prevalence shall increase and one of the factors leading to this is that the majority of the
individuals with this condition are undiagnosed especially in the developing countries. Due to the
increased rate of people suffering from obesity, people have also increasingly suffered from
multifactorial cardiovascular risk management and diabetes. Obesity is a pandemic of the entire
globe, brought about by lifestyle habits of individuals (Hunter 2015). Some people are suffering
from pre-stage diabetes called IGT (Impaired Glucose Tolerance) and according to the IDF atlas
estimations, the figure identified in 2017 was 352.1 million which is expected to rise to 531.6
million by 2045. Overt diabetes can be prevented in several measures while the complications
associated with diabetes include heart diseases, brain, kidneys, eyes and feet complications
(Rockefeller 2015). On a global scale, diabetes affects mostly middle-aged people of 40 to 59
years and suffers very serious social and economic implications. In India, over 62 million people
have been affected by diabetes mostly due to genetic factors, lifestyle standards, and increased
obesity levels (Misra 2018).

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The health effects of diabetes are both short and long term, which worsen as a result of poor
glycemic control. Diabetes can be managed appropriately through the prescribed therapies,
change of lifestyles, and diet can halt the progression of diabetes-associated symptoms, ("global
prevalence of diabetes").
The short term health effects of diabetes globally include hypoglycemia which is due to reduced
blood sugar levels. This happens when the blood glucose is poorly managed by the use of high
amounts of insulin, failure to consistently take meals or by behaviors such as consumption of
alcohol. The symptoms of hypoglycemia include confusion, headache, loss of consciousness and
increased heart rate (Shotliff 2018).
Another short term effect includes ketoacidosis which is caused by high levels of ketones. This
comes from low insulin in the body to sufficiently draw glucose from the blood to refuel cells. In
return, the body metabolizes fats into ketones. the symptoms of this condition include increased
thirst, coma, vomiting and frequent urination. The other short term condition includes the
hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state that is caused by illnesses or ineffective medications of
diabetes. this condition is characterized by a very high blood glucose level that is over 40mmol/l
which causes severe dehydration that needs too much fluid to treat. Its signs and symptoms
include disorientation, thirst, frequent urination, nausea and susceptibility to complications.
The long term effects of diabetes include diabetic retinopathy that arises as a result of poorly
managed type 2 diabetes. This results in a long period of high blood glucose which leads to
damaged small blood vessels in the retina of the eye. This is what causes diabetic retinopathy.
This disorder can cause blindness and its treatments are limited to VEGF injections in the eye
and photocoagulation therapy. To prevent this condition, diabetes should be properly managed
after its onset. Another long term effect includes cardiovascular disease. Cardiovascular disease

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is one of the biggest risks known globally, which is associated with diabetes (Santulli 2019).
This happens due to inflammation, oxidation and various associative factors. inflammation and
oxidation are triggered by high blood sugar levels(hyperglycemia) which then results in the onset
of endothelial dysfunction. This can even lead to morbidity and mortality thus managing diabetes
at its earliest stages is one of the best interventions.
Nephropathy is another long term effect of diabetes. This is a kidney disease brought about by
hyperglycemia which makes the kidneys filter too much blood leading to filter damage. The
filters may then leak little amounts of protein into the urine and if there is accompanied high
blood sugar, large amounts of blood may leak to the bloodstream. The end-stage renal disease
may display the symptoms of nephropathy which include insomnia, fatigue, upset stomach, and
poor concentration.
Neuropathy is another long term condition that affects the nerve as a result of uncontrolled
diabetes. this results from hyperglycemia which damages the small blood vessels that supply the
nerves with essential nutrients. Neuropathy exists in motor, autonomic and sensory forms.
In the globe, people suffering from diabetes can take several measures to control the condition.
They can reduce their blood sugar and also prevent the long term and short term health effects
progression. One of those methods includes exercises that lead to improved cells insulin
sensitivity, especially in type 2 diabetes. A healthy diet can lead is one of the well-rounded
treatment protocol together with insulin therapy support. A glucose analyzer can be used to
monitor therapy's effect together with regular analytic measurements. Individual needs should be
kept into consideration when managing this condition.

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Globally, diabetes can be reduced through early detection and the use of preventive measures
such as prediabetes disorder stage. POCT devices should always be used to quickly detect
diabetes through analysis of levels of blood glucose, lactate levels, and glycated hemoglobin.
Glycated hemoglobin is a marker for diabetes and is also used as a prognostic risk marker for
cardiovascular heart disease.
There are three types of diabetes as discussed in this paper which include diabetes type 1,
diabetes type 2 and gestational diabetes. Diabetes is a global phenomenon as discussed that
mostly affects young people across the globe. Anyone can suffer from type 1 and type 2 diabetes
while gestational diabetes is mostly found in the expectant women. Not every expectant mother
suffers from diabetes and for those who experience the condition, it vanishes after giving birth.
They are all associated with diverse signs and symptoms as earlier discussed, which can be
controlled through therapy and change of lifestyle.
There are very many plants that can be used in curing diabetes. These include stinging nettle that
originates from Europe, Asia, and Northern Africa. Another plant is fenugreek and safflower that
originates from India, Asafoetida from Iran and Afghanistan, Brazilian Orchard tree from
Argentina, Peru and Brazil, cow plant from central India and Srilanka (Saad, Zaid, Shanak, &
Kadan 2017). There is also the bitter gourd whose fruit pulp, seed, leaves and the whole plant are
used in managing diabetes and also the mango leaves whose origin is Asia and Africa as well as
Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan respectively. Vernonia is another plant used in the curing of
diabetes and also Coccinia indica, Syzygium cumin, Momordica charantia, Trigonella
foenumgraecum and Azadirachta indica.

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