National University of Political and Administration Studies PR Report

This report, authored by Diana-Maria Cismaru and Raluca Silvia Ciochina from the National University of Political and Administration Studies (NUPSPA Bucharest), investigates the challenges public relations practitioners face in the era of digital intelligence. It highlights the need for digital skills to navigate the evolving media landscape and address diverse public audiences. The study identifies gaps in practitioners' ability to engage both traditional and digitally-savvy publics and deficiencies in current university curricula that fail to adequately integrate digital intelligence. The report examines the consequences of these gaps on PR practices and proposes directions for educational strategies to adapt to the changing demands of the field. It references previous research showing the importance of digital communication, strategic planning, and measurement skills. The authors emphasize the importance of digital literacy and the ability to grasp and reason with online abstractions, as well as the need for practitioners to understand how technology and psychology impact information sharing. The report also touches upon the merging of PR and marketing, and the skills practitioners need to develop to create integrated marketing and communication strategies.

The rise of digital intelligence: challenges for public relations education and practices
Diana-Maria Cismaru, Associate Professor, Ph.D
Raluca Silvia Ciochina, Ph. D. Student
National University of Political and Administration
Studies (NUPSPA Bucharest)
Abstract
The current global culture, built around networks of information technology which entails ease and speed of
information flow, constrains PR practitioners to develop a new form of intelligence: digital intelligence. Considering
the definition of Gardner (1993, p. ii) of intelligence as the “ability to solve problems or fashion products that are of
consequence in a particular cultural setting or community”, Adams (2004, p. 96) observed that, in the global
contemporary village, “intelligence is directly related to our ability to interact with this emerging digital
environment.” Applying social media strategies to meet a competitive market, where publics gained the power to
influence media interactions, has become one of the main requirements for PR practitioners. Yet, previous
scholarship (Tench et al., 2013) showed that the development of digital skills is rather modest for European
practitioners. Using a survey on a sample of PR practitioners and students, the paper explores two types of gaps that
practitioners have to deal with. First gap refers to the difficulty of addressing constantly to two categories of publics
(older traditional publics, and young publics with a higher level of digital skills). The second gap refers to education,
as the curricula in universities does not address to the emerging digital intelligence in an integrative way. The aim of
the pilot study is to determine the consequences of these gaps on PR practices and the directions for an educational
strategy of adaptation.
Keywords: digital intelligence, digital skills gap, public relations challenges
Introduction
Several authors have identified that public relations and communication practitioners are
currently dealing and struggling with the impact of new media and the internet on their practice
(James, 2007, Macnamara, 2010, Robson & James, 2012), and also with the lack of skilled
people who can deal with the challenges of today`s social media environment (Fitch, 2009;
Tench et al, 2013). Tench et al. (2013) found some of the core skills needed by a communicators
to face today`s dynamic, global environment: writing, critical thinking/problem solving skills,
soft skills, legislative knowledge and social media skills, which was the top area where
specialists needed to improve. The aim of this research paper is to investigate the current
challenges that public relations and communication practitioners from Romania are facing when
addressing external publics in today`s digital media environment. A second aim of the paper is to
identify some of the digital skills gaps present at the educational level, considering the emerging
new media environment.
According to research carried by the PR Academy (2013), alumni respondents identified as
their top three skills gaps: digital communications (52%), followed by strategic planning (46%),
and measurement (44%). In 2012, the European Communication Monitor (Zerfass et al., 2012)
which is the largest transnational survey on strategic communication worldwide, with 2,200
participants from 42 countries, also showed that there are gaps between the perceived importance
of digital media and the way they are actually being used by public relations professionals,
indicating the same knowledge and skills gap. In fact, some of the biggest digital challenges
identified by communication professionals are coping with the digital evolution (46%),
addressing more audiences and channels with limited resources (34%), ethics in social media,

but also catching up in the field of mobile applications. Therefore, communication specialists
manifest a growing interest in obtaining qualifications in these areas. The next year‟s similar
study (Zerfass et al., 2013) was conducted in 43 countries, and showed that communication
practitioners believe that there is a need to develop different strategies for different generations,
the under 30 digital native generation being more interactive (89%), and that organisations use
specific communication strategies for each generation (60%). Moreover, bloggers, consumers
and digital active employees are starting to become important tools for strategic communicators.
67% practitioners believe that online videos are important communication tools, but only 46%
implemented this tool in their organizations. As far as social media skills are concerned,
communication practitioners are looking at a slow increase from 2011, as only 29% are good at
initiating web-based dialogues with stakeholders. Also, 7 out of 10 communication practitioners
faced a communication crisis, but only few chose to use social media as instrument for dealing
with it.
Another relevant study (Parker, 2014) has found skills gaps in the UK public relations
market, comparing the demands of organizations with the skills of public relations candidates.
The survey found that, amongst other gaps, writing, social media and client services skills are
considered missing when evaluating communication practitioners. The need to keeping pace with
newest technologies and developments in the context of digital era is primordial for
communication practitioners. They now see digital communication as part of strategic planning
and recognising their shortages is a first step in addressing this issue and potentially solve it
through qualification means.
The National Academy of Sciences (1999) significantly observed that “skills with specific
applications are thus necessary but not sufficient for individuals to prosper in the information
age” (p. 11). As Resnik (2002) suggested, fostering creativity and innovation inside classrooms
can be a first step. While acquiring computer literacy is crucial, individuals also need to
internalize in-depth understanding of information technology, so as when faced with an
unexpected issue, they will be able to adapt or find alternative solutions. This represents
technological fluency – “the ability to reformulate knowledge, to express oneself creatively and
appropriately, and to produce and generate information (rather than simply to comprehend it).”
(p. 14).
As younger publics have incorporated the digital media into their lives at a more profound
level, not necessarily focusing on their utility, but rather on the experiences they provide, it is
extremely important that communication practitioners dealing with these publics enhance their
level of understanding of digital media use, noted by Buckingham (2008) as “digital literacy”.
Considering this, the paper proposes a direction to study the development of a new form of
intelligence crucial for public relations and communication practitioners: the digital intelligence.
Literature Review
Public relations practice in the online environment
Although past research evaluates the differences between roles in the public relations
profession, the practice of this profession implies various forms, especially with the current
emerging information and communication technologies which imply various levels of execution
and involvement. Many scholars have investigated the new roles and challenges that public
relations and communication practitioners are currently facing, considering the emancipation of

information and communication technologies, especially social media (e.g. Macnamara, 2011;
Lee, 2013; Wigley & Zhang, 2011).
The contemporary digital culture, based on hyper-connectivity and global access to
computers, smartphones and other devices which allow Internet connection, has changed the
realm of daily interaction as public relations and communication professionals knew it in the
past. Information availability, from various sources, either institutionalized or not, can cause both
benefits and problems for communication practitioners. Rumors can spread easily and the
dynamics of misinformation propagation and attempts to deceive users are still at infancy levels
(Ratkiewicz et al, 2011); false information diffusion can cause organizations or public actors
damages. Furthermore, communication practitioners need to be able to face competitors`
unethical practices, such as attacks (Herring et al., 2002), which are meant to diffuse the
attention from one topic and turn discussions into unproductive debates.
John Bell, a renowned digital innovation specialist who led the successful Social@Ogilvy
(the best digital consultancy in the world), argued in 2008 that the public relations and marketing
practice are merging together, and, as a consequence, the public relations and communication
practitioner is forced to develop new skills, and more particularly to: create integrated marketing
and communication strategy, monitor the online space, implement advanced search engine
optimization programs, develop relationships with influencers, manage communities and
participate in conversations, start using new technology in their own lives, start applying new
engagement metrics, test and evaluate pilot programs, focus on training, work on content strategy
and apply digital crisis management. Moreover, Bell (2008) emphasized that public relations
practitioners should develop their ability to identify and engage influencers and understand how
technology and psychology impact individuals who share information.
Among other public relations and communication work categories, Sha (2011) defined social
media relations as activities which included “utilizing Web-based social networks, developing
social media strategies for communication efforts, producing in-house or client blogs, apprising
clients on how to use social media strategies as delivery channels for communication efforts,
SEO, blogger relations, etc.” (p. 188-189). According to Sha (2011), the top KSAs (knowledge,
skills and abilities) used by communication practitioners in a typical week in 2010 were: use of
information technology and new media channels (91%), management skills and issues, media
relations, research, planning, implementation and evaluation of PR programs, among others.
Towards a Definition of Digital Intelligence
Although many scholars have addressed the importance of internet skills and proposed ways
of measuring them (van Deursen & van Dijk, 2010; Hargittai, 2002; van Dijk, 2005), there is still
a need to investigate what specific digital skills communication practitioners should acquire in
today`s digital era (and not only what they perceive to be important) and whether future
practitioners are prepared to meet the challenges of the online environment, considering their
levels of digital skills nowadays.
As van Deursen and van Dijk (2010) noted, considering people`s “increasing dependence on
information, internet skills should be considered as a vital resource in contemporary society” (p.
893). Stemming from Gardner`s (1993) intelligence classification scheme, who defined
intelligence as the “ability to solve problems or fashion products that are of consequence in a
particular cultural setting or community” (p.15), Adams (2004) proposed the emergence of a new
form of intelligence: digital intelligence. According to Adams, digital intelligence “is a response

to the cultural change brought about by digital technologies and takes into account the skills and
talents possessed by the “symbol analysts” and “masters of chance” recently recognized in
Gardner`s (1999) latest book” (p. 94). According to Gardner, “a symbol analyst can sit for hours
in front of a string of numbers and words, usually displayed on a computer screen, and readily
discern meaning”, making future projections, while “a master of change readily acquires new
information, solves problems, forms “weak ties” with mobile and highly dispersed people, and
adjusts easily to changing circumstances” (1999, p. 2).
Considering Schmidt`s and Hunter`s (2000) definition of general intelligence, which refers
to the ability to learn and solve problems, we conceptualize digital intelligence as the ability to
grasp and reason correctly with digital/online abstractions (online concepts) and solve online
problems (technological, informational and communicational).
As “each intelligence must have an identifiable core operation or set of operations […] (and)
is activated or „triggered‟ by certain kinds of internally or externally presented information”
(Gardner, 1993, p. 16), Adams (2004) observes that, considering information clusters and lack of
linearity, “those with the ability to understand and interact with this digital information to
arrange, manipulate, and display it according to their perceptions possess yet another intelligence
- an intelligence made up of components of the other intelligences” (p. 95). In 1999, Gardner
developed a newer version of intelligence definition stating that it represents a “biopsychological
potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or
create products that are of value in a culture” (p. 33-34). Moreover, as Adams observers, our
ability to deal with today`s challenges depends on our intellectual ability to solve problems and
interact in a digital environment. Rapid information diffusion and dissemination has changed the
way we process information, and the way communication means, particularly new media, are
expanding, individuals need to adapt as well, in a setting where “technological advancements
have allowed fluency across all cultures and at the same time have rapidly increased our ability
for information gathering, storage, and retrieval” (p. 94).
As Gardner (1999) suggested after assessing the ways his multiple intelligence theory can
be applied in schools and education in general, specific techniques need to be applied and goals
to be established, and then a measurement of how successful implementation has been in the end.
The author believed that education should combine various resources which imply multiple
intelligences usage, thus creating a complete and challenging experience for the ones studying.
Resnik (2002) introduced the notion of digital fluency and emphasized that, even though
individuals are taught how to look up information on the web and use specific platforms, they are
not fluent with technology, as they need to know how to construct things of significance with the
tools they use, not only understand how they work. He furthermore foresaw that “in the years
ahead, digital fluency will become a prerequisite for obtaining jobs, participating meaningfully in
society, and learning throughout a lifetime” (p. 33). While the digital divide gap is currently
shifting from internet access and opportunities to interact with technology to digital fluency gap
(Resnik, 2002), it is becoming more and more relevant to develop the right set of skills and
knowledge to overcome these issues, from their infancy levels, starting with university programs.
Livingstone (2004) asserts that “as people engage with a diversity of ICTs, we must develop an
account of literacies in the plural, defined through their relations with different media rather than
defined independently of them” (p. 7). Resnik (2002) proposed a more entrepreneurial approach
to learning, especially as information is available and learning can become individualized:
“Students can become more active and independent learners, with the teacher serving as a
consultant, not chief executive” (p. 36).

There are scholars who observed how some individuals` online skills are more developed
than others` (Hargittai, 2002; van Dijk, 2005; 2006) and this phenomena was introduced as
second level digital divide, a form of exclusion derived from how information and
communication technologies are used. Hargittai (2002) identified differences in how people find
information online and that they engage in various types of web surfing, with younger people
displaying more agility in using search engines. In 2008, taking further research into the
phenomena of second level digital divide, Hargittai identified that there are differences regarding
the levels of skills of young adults as well, and those who benefit from higher education and
access to various sources use the Web for activities, “that may lead to more informed political
participation (seeking political or government information online), help with one`s career
advancement (exploring career or job opportunities on the Web), or consulting information about
financial and health services.” (p. 607)
In Buckingham`s (2008) view, definitions of digital literacy previously provided by other
scholars are too narrow, referring only to the operational skills developed for using software and
hardware, or “in performing basic information retrieval tasks” (p. 60). Beyond the instrumental
or functional literacy of using digital media, there are other abilities which need to be addressed:
the strategic ability to use information critically, evaluate information resources properly,
language, production and audience understanding of the online environment (Buckingham,
2008).
According to van Dijk (2006), Hargittai is the only researcher who observed information
skills in their depth. Further, Van Dijk (2006) introduced the notion of digital skills together with
Steyaert (2000) as operational and, respectively, instrumental. In an earlier paper (Van Dijk,
2005) the author distinguished between strategic skills, which refer to the ability to use
technology for reaching particular objectives and for building one`s social status, information
skills, which refer to finding, selecting and processing information using various sources and
operational skills, which are more practical and refer to the ability to work with computer
software are hardware (and are the most basic skills). Moreover, van Dijk stressed that
individuals usually learn computer skills by practice, without the formal help of education; but
education is still required, especially as people need to understand the effects of their interaction,
either implicit or explicit, with information and communication technologies. Strategic digital
skills, on the other hand, need more in-depth research as they imply “making a transition to the
actual usage of digital media and how this usage may lead to more or less participation in several
fields of society “(van Dijk, 2006, p. 229). Based on earlier academic findings, Van Deursen and
van Dijk (2009, p.2) suggested a framework for adequately measuring four types of digital skills:
operational skills, information skills, formal skills (used to handle special structures like menus
and hyperlinks) and strategic skills.
Also, in building a quantitative research instrument are useful the findings of Eshet (2012),
who identified six digital skills for effective performance in the digital era: photo-visual,
branching, reproduction, information, socio-emotional and real-time thinking skills. The latter
has been introduced as in today`s “digital era, with the central role of fast computers, multimedia
environments, and devices that can process and present information in real-time and at high
speed, real-time thinking has become a critical skill” (p. 272). Social emotionally skilled
individuals show more willingness to share information with others, can evaluate it and are “able
to design knowledge through virtual collaboration” (p. 271) and understand the rules for
communicating in the online space, aided by reproduction skills, which refer to rearranging
information and content to create new meanings, while information skills imply critically

evaluating and assessing information. The branching digital skills, or hypermedia skills, on the
other hand, involve a sense of orientation, the ability to create mental models and concept maps
and other forms of abstract representation, and the photo-visual skill helps users “to intuitively
and freely „read‟ and understand instructions and messages that are presented in a visual
graphical form” (p. 268).
For answering the first research question, we developed a survey and we sought to identify
the level of operational, strategic and fluency skills developed by public relations and
communication students for dealing with the current digital online environment. Concordant with
Hargittai`s (2008) view, the online behaviour can be a reflection of individual`s online skills, we
introduced items to the questionnaire, where the participants were able to rate their abilities on
new media platforms, particularly social media.
Research questions
Considering the theoretical framework we developed, the aim of this paper is to address the
following research questions:
RQ1: Which type of digital skills (operational, information, strategic or of digital fluency)
are more developed among students in public relations?
RQ2: What limitations and opportunities are PR practitioners facing while engaging with
publics in the digital landscape, and what particular skills are necessary to deal with challenges?
RQ3: What aspects in academic education in public relations should be adapted and
emphasized in order to form the necessary skills for managing communication in the new digital
environment?
Methodology
We applied a questionnaire investigating online behaviours and the degree of development of
digital skills (operational, informational, strategic and of digital fluency) of students engaged in
public relations and communication education, in two different universities (University of
Bucharest, from Romania, and National University of Political Studies and Public
Administration, Bucharest, Romania). The respondents were either undergraduates or graduates
enrolled in a master program. The questionnaire was applied to students in communication and
public relations for two reasons: one of them is that they are the future specialists in
communication and public relations, and the second was that, due to their age, they are a sample
of the “digitally intelligent” new publics.
The questionnaire was delivered to students in March, 2014. A convenience sample was used
and it consisted of 100 participants who were required to fill in the questionnaires as accurately
as possible. 98 students submitted valid questionnaires, 83 of which were females. The majority
of students (n=88) were aged between 20 and 25 years old, most of them being students (n=67),
and almost one third, employed.
For finding out the perception of the challenges and requirements of the social media
environment among practitioners, and for identifying their online behavior and activities related
to their job roles, we chose to conduct a more in-depth analysis, by using a qualitative method,
the interview. We chose a convenience sample for this pilot study, and, as such, the participants
belonged to various industries and had different job roles as public relations and communication
practitioners, but all of them had previous or current professional engagement with the online

environment. They were either practitioners employed in social and digital management roles, or
consultants from this field. First, we approached them via email and explained the purposes of
our research and the reason why we consider them eligible for the interview. After accepting, we
established Skype meetings, as many did not have the time for a face-to-face interview.
Consequently, we interviewed 20 public relations and communication practitioners dealing with
the online environment. The sample consisted of: 3 communication professionals from the
political industry, 6 online communication specialists working in a public relations and online
marketing agency, and 11 communication specialists working for a particular client/organization.
Their experience with the online environment is not homogenous, yet the current online
environment poses similar challenges, as we will see from interview analysis.
Research instruments
a) The questionnaire. The questionnaire was developed for assessing the online behaviour
and attitudes, the degree of development of digital skills and the different digital skills that
students possess.
Firstly, we enquired what digital platforms public relations and communication students use
for operational purposes, specifically if they use mobile phones, laptops or notebooks, tablets or
dvd/ipods for variate activities (visiting sites, reading and sending emails, reading press, giving
likes and shares, making comments, accepting connection requests, being able to buy items and
pay bills, listening to music, watching videos and movies and playing online games). Then, we
inserted items for self-evaluation of operational skills, which included orientation, photo-visual
and reproduction skills. As such, we enquired about the familiarity with the following items:
tagging, using hyperlinks and bookmarking websites, and by asking participants whether they are
able to generate their profiles in online social networks and to edit attractive content materials
and to make technical improvements to blog or Facebook account, use monitoring tools for
online channels, and even to generate and design a blog entirely. We also asked our participants
the time spent on adapting to new interfaces, either for mobile or online platforms in general.
In order to assess information skills, which include critically assessing information, we
developed items inquiring about the time spent to find necessary information, and familiarity
with items like timeline, hashtag, mentions. We also asked participants to refer to their attitude
towards the degree to which they believe information is reliable after it is found on several online
channels, whether they acknowledge the credibility of the information if it is coming from a
friend, and whether information overload is too much to handle when engaging in social media
communication. Moreover, we asked the participants to rate how quickly they can find the best
information available for homework and exams online.
As public relations and communication students need to understand and critically assess
social media opportunities and strengths for dealing with future challenges, we introduced
strategic social media skills, which imply the individuals` ability to take advantage of social
media and reach specific goals. We sought to identify what social media students use for both
personal and education-related purposes: for spending free time, for entertainment, for keeping
up with what friends are doing, for receiving trusted information and real time information, for
finding out professional opportunities, for seeing Power-Point presentations, and for accessing
visual information. Also, we specifically enquired what types of actions students take on
Facebook, Twitter, You Tube, Slide Share, Linked In, and blogs: whether they update their
profiles, give likes and comments, see videos and photos, share useful information with friends,
write statuses or postings, and upload presentations, videos or prints.

We also included digital fluency skills, which also imply socio-emotional involvement and
real-time thinking skills: ability to understand that information cannot be controlled in social
media after it became available to users, or dealing with criticism or negative feedback. Also,
items assessing digital fluency skills included: ability to understand when someone has evil
intentions in an online conversation, rules of acceptable behaviour in an online setting, coping
with large volumes of information from a variety of social channels in the same time, engaging
in conversations on different platforms with more than 3 people in the same time.
We used descriptive statistical analysis for identifying some of the items, aligned with the
way we developed our research instrument. We also included Likert scales and analysed them as
ordinal level data, conducting mean analysis for each item investigated. Likert scales were
mostly used for self-assessment of familiarity with different online behaviours, attitudes or social
media channels.
In order to compare the four type of digital skills, the variables have been recomposed (for
each of the four categories of skills, seven variables were introduced in order to generate a
composed variable). Some variables needed recoding for being correctly introduced in the
composed variable (for example, the “time needed to find an information” was recoded). Finally,
an entire recoding by using weighting was applied for the third category, strategic skills, since
the frequencies were not constructed on the same ordinal scale, from 1 to 5.
b) The interview guide was structured and consisted in fourteen questions. The discussion
started, in the same manner as the questionnaire, with a general inquiry about the number and
type of digital devices used, the time spent on internet in professional/personal aims, the time to
get accustomed with a device or for gathering internet information. The next set of questions
identified the differentiated use of different social media. A special place was given to the
discussion of advantages or disadvantages (or limitations or challenges) determined by the social
media development. The next aspect in discussion was the difference in approaching mature and
young publics. The last sequence of questions was dedicated to the topic of education in public
relations and to the competencies needed to be developed to young specialists in order to cope
with the new digital environment.
Results of the questionnaire survey
The introductory part of the questionnaire presented general questions regarding the
possession of devices, time spent on social media and association of devices with specific
actions.
Even though most students had one mobile phone (n=76) and one laptop or notebook (n=86),
almost a quarter had 2 mobile phones at their disposal (n=20), and only 35 students owned a
tablet. Students mostly use laptops or notebooks for looking up information (n=63), visit sites
(n=74), read and send emails (n=67), read press (n=58), buy items (n=80), pay bills (n=73),
watch videos and movies (n=76). However, when more social online activities are involved,
results appear to me more distributed, as they show a balance between mobile phones and
laptops/notebook use, for the following: giving likes and shares (35% vs. 37%), making
comments (33% vs. 42%), accepting connection requests (33% vs. 42%), engaging in online
conversations (34% vs. 43%), and also for listening to music (28% vs. 31%) (See Graph 1).
As far as social media accounts are concerned, results showed that Facebook and You Tube
were the most preferred by students: 99% have a Facebook account, 82% have a You Tube

account, 34% have Twitter and Linked In accounts, 43% have an Instagram account, and 32%
have a Pinterest account. Slide Share (10%), Wordpress (21%) and Blogger (18%) showed low
results in this sense. The respondents were asked to rate their daily use of the platforms, and it
appears that the search engine Google and Facebook are the main options for daily use, followed
by You Tube and Gmail, as secondary or third options available.
Graph 1. Balance between mobile phones and laptops use for social media actions
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Likes/shares Comments Connections Online
conversation
Listen music
Mobile phones
Laptops/notebooks
For measuring the first dimension of operational skills, which included familiarity with
tagging, hyperlinks and bookmarking, we developed a five-point Likert scale where 1=no
understanding, and 5= complete understanding. Mean analysis demonstrate that students self-
evaluate with good understanding regarding these items: tagging familiarity (m=3.48, sd=.87),
hyperlink familiarity (m=4.00, sd=1.40), bookmark familiarity (m=4.44, sd=1.05). Respondents
also had to identify the degree to which they agreed with some of the dimensions we identified
as operational skills. For measuring purposes, we used a Likert scale, with 1=not at all and
5=definitely. The respondents replied a high degree of ability to generate their own profiles on
online social networks (m=4.35, sd=.92), to update them (m=4.56, sd=98), to edit attractive
content materials for their readers (m=4.04, sd=1.09), and to make small technical improvements
to their own personal blog or Facebook account (m=4.15, sd=1.08). Medium levels of
operational skills were reported for using monitoring tools (m=3.37, sd=1.33), and for generating
and designing the blog entirely (m=2.98, sd=1.65). For getting accustomed to using to the rules
of using a new interface, students reported spending between few hours and one day (m=1.51,
sd= .77) (see Table 1).
Table 1. Operational skills: ability to operate in social media
Item Mean SD
1. I generated my own profiles in online social networks. 4.35 0.92
2. I am able to update my profile in online social networks 4.56 0.98

3. I am able to edit attractive content materials for my
readers
4.04 0.92
4. I am able to make small technical improvements to my
personal blog or my Facebook account.
4.15 1.08
5. I generated and designed my blog entirely 2.98 1.65
6. I am able to use monitoring tools for my own online
channels
3.37 1.33
7. Time spent on using with a new interface 1.51 0.77
For measuring information skills, the participants were asked to answer several items. Firstly,
respondents completed an average of 5 to 10 minutes for finding the needed information using a
digital device (m=1.91, sd=1.11), and reported medium understanding of hashtags (m=3.48,
sd=1.65) and mentions (m=3.67, sd=1.55). Furthermore, the respondents believe to a medium
degree than information is reliable after they found it on several online channels (m=3.76,
sd=.95), and showing somewhat levels of scepticism regarding information validity: only to a
small degree they believe that information is true if they receive it from a friend via social media
(m=2.26, sd=.99). When dealing with information overload, results show that only to a small
degree information overload prevents them from engaging in social media communication
(m=2.51, sd=1.04). As a testing question, we also included an item for measuring the rapidity of
finding information (similar to the first one), where respondents rated their ability: the results
were confirmed as participants agreed to a high degree that they can find quickly the best
information they need for their exams and homework (m=4.02, sd=.93).
Table 3. Information skills
Item Mean SD
1. Time needed to find an information 1.91 1.11
2. Understanding of hashtags 3.48 1.65
3. Understanding of mentions 3.67 1.55
4. I prefer social media and search engines
instead of traditional media
3.96 1.09
5. I consider an information reliable after I
find it on several online channels
3.76 0.95
6. I believe the information is true if I receive
it from a friend via social media
2.26 0.99
7. Information overload prevents me from
engaging in social media communication
2.51 1.04
In order to measure strategic digital skills, we focused our attention on two main
dimensions: social media usage for entertainment and informational purposes, and the types of
actions participants engaged in on these channels. The purpose was to identify whether
participants understand the specific utilities per channel. While Facebook and YouTube were the
first options for spending free time and entertainment purposes, for receiving trusted information
participants also used Slideshare (12%), LinkedIn (15%), and blogs (21%). Facebook ranks as
the top source for receiving information in real time as well (70%), and it is also being used for
finding out professional opportunities (26%), along with LinkedIn (46%). Slideshare is mostly

used for seeing Power Point presentations (51%), and for accessing visual information,
respondents reported using mostly Facebook (38%) and You Tube (37%).
Usually, Facebook is used for updating profiles and writing statuses (92%), giving likes
and posting comments (99%), seeing videos and photos (83%), stocking personal videos and
photos (87%), sharing useful information with friends (91%), and uploading presentations (65%)
(See Graph 2). Considering that few participants owned Twitter accounts, the results for this
channel`s usage is also low: only 17% choose Twitter for writing statuses and for sharing useful
information with friends. Also, blog activities results suggest minimum levels of involvement:
12% use blogs for seeing videos and photos and for sharing useful information with friends, and
15% for writing posts. When using You Tube, participants choose to like and post comments to a
small degree (21%), see photos and videos (84%), and upload presentations (27%). It appears
that respondents also choose Slide Share for uploading presentations (35%), and Linked In is
used for profile updating, however, by few respondents (12%).
Graph 2. Strategic skills: use of online social networks
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Writing statuses
Likes and comments
Seeing videos/photos
Stocking personal photos
Sharing informations
Uploading presentations
Update profile
Facebook Blogs Youtube LinkedIn Slideshare Twitter
In order to measure digital fluency skills, we introduced items requesting participants to
rate their attitude towards social media and online interactions, from 1=not at all, to
5=definitely. Findings suggest that students in public relations do not understand the implications
of loss of control on social media (m=2.46, sd=1.26). As far as criticism and negative feedback is
concerned, the mean analysis shows low levels of fearing this sort of feedback (m=2.19,
sd=1.19), participants reporting high levels of understanding across channels (m-4.40, sd-0.89),
and rapid understanding when someone has evil intentions in an online conversation (m=4.30,
sd=.82). Moreover, respondents seem to be aware of online etiquette and acceptable behaviour,
as they assessed their level of knowledge to a high degree as well (m=4.34, sd=1.01). In respect
to coping with large volumes of information from a variety of social channels in the same time

and engaging in conversations on different platforms with more than 3 people in the same time,
the respondents medium to high levels (m=3.63, sd=.99, respectively, m=3.94, sd=1.15).
Table 3. Digital fluency skills: socio-emotional involvement
Item Mean SD
1. After posting in social media, I cannot control the
information any more
2.46 1.26
2. I fear criticism or negative feedback from social
media users.
2.19 1.19
3. I understand interactions across the online channels I
access daily
4.40 0.89
4. I understand rapidly when someone has evil
intentions in an online conversation
4.30 0.82
5. I know the rules for an acceptable online behavior. 4.34 1.01
6. I can cope with large volumes of information from a
variety of social channels in the same time
3.63 0.99
7. I can engage in conversations on different platforms
with more than 3 people in the same time
3.94 1.15
Comparison of digital skills
In order to compare the development in the sample of respondents of the four categories of
skills, the means of the new composite variables were compared. The means for the four
categories are almost on the same level (around m=3,5), with a slight difference for the
informational skills (m=3.24) (see Graph 3). Thus, the comparison shows a similar level of
development of the four categories (rather a good level, as a result of self–assessment) in the
sample which was studied.
Graph 3. Comparison of means for the four categories
0
1
2
3
4
5
Operational skills Information skills Strategic skills Digital fluency skills
Results of interview
In terms of digital devices used for both professional and personal uses, there seems to be a
balance between those who use two devices, laptops and smartphones (n=11), and those who use
3 digital devices, including a tablet (n=8). Ema (28), who is working in a digital consultancy