Earth Science Report: Origins, Interior, Habitability, and Hazards

This report provides an overview of key questions in Earth science, covering the formation of Earth and other planets, Earth's interior dynamics, and the factors influencing its habitability. It examines topics such as plate tectonics, climate change, and the relationship between life and Earth's environment. The report also explores natural hazards like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, as well as the impact of fluid flow on the human environment. It includes a comparison between research from a textbook and current research, highlighting the evolution of scientific understanding regarding Earth's processes and the search for life beyond Earth. The report is organized into sections addressing the origins of Earth, its interior, its habitability, and associated hazards and resources.

Science earth

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1
Main body........................................................................................................................................1
1. ORIGINS.....................................................................................................................................1
How did Earth and other planets form........................................................................................1
Question 2: What happened during Earth’s “dark age” (the first 500 million years)? ..............1
Question 3: How did life begin? ................................................................................................1
2 EARTH’S INTERIOR .................................................................................................................2
Question 4: How does Earth’s interior work, and how does it affect the surface?.....................2
Question 5: Why does Earth have plate tectonics and continents? ............................................2
Question 6: How are Earth processes controlled by material properties? .................................2
3 A HABITABLE PLANET ...........................................................................................................3
Question 7: What causes climate to change—and how much can it change? ............................3
Question 8: How has life shaped Earth—and how has Earth shaped life? ................................3
4 HAZARDS AND RESOURCES .................................................................................................3
Question 9: Can earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and their consequences be predicted? .........3
Question 10: How do fluid flow and transport affect the human environment? ........................4
B Comparison between earth and other planet from book and the present research .................4
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................7
References .......................................................................................................................................8

INTRODUCTION
The modern science has its root in fundamental questions related to the origins of Earth
and life. The solar system is made up of different types of planets that the outer planets are
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. This can be distinguished from the inner planets by their
large size and low density. The present assignment is based on different question regarding Earth
and science. In this report, the importance of each questions is explained. Along with this the
relationship between each questions is discussed. Apart from this, comparison is done between
the research in the book and the new research which has been done at present.
Main body
1. ORIGINS
How did Earth and other planets form
This question is important because it states the way Earth and other planet formed. The
Solar system is with its inviting geometric patterns and there wide variety of planets and moons.
This make given question more important because new observation was made on Earth that has
retained a life giving inventory of volatile substances, includes air and water. This question is
one of the challenging and important questions about the Earth's formation. It helps in
understanding the inner planets formed (Kumar, Kuribayashi & Ishikawa, 2013).
Question 2: What happened during Earth’s “dark age” (the first 500 million years)?
The importance of this question is that it help in gaining information of “dark age”. A
Mars sized planet was hit with sun. This collision added so much heat to Earth due to which
entire planet is dissolved . There are many clues regarding this time period are compiled and help
in learning and gaining new information from ancient crystal of zircon on Earth.
Question 3: How did life begin?
The starting of life is one of the most interesting, difficult and abiding question in
science. However, this question not give relevant answer because life in Solar System arose a
billion of years ago, but it helps in understanding where, when and what for it first appeared
(Bojarczuk, Buchanan & Ragnarsson, 2008). At early time earth surface seems to be different
from today's and one of the critical challenge is to identify chemical building available to early
life and its physical environment.
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Relationship between this questions
There are three questions in origin chapter, the two questions that are regarding to the origin of
earth and other planets and other one is related to origin of life are separated by the third which
deals with Earth's earliest history.
2 EARTH’S INTERIOR
Question 4: How does Earth’s interior work, and how does it affect the surface?
This question is important because it assists in enhancing the knowledge regarding the
Earths interior work and its effect the surface. This question addresses deep Earth dynamical
processes, from the inner metallic core at the Centre of the convecting mantle to the volcanoes at
the surface. When the planet is geologically active, thus evidence of this activity grinds to a halt,
due to which planet surface stops regenerating (Honma, Koshiba & Komatsu, 2008). Without
having knowledge it becomes difficult to know earth internal process, It becomes difficult to
deduce the Earth's surface environment which was in the past or predict what it will be in the
future.
Question 5: Why does Earth have plate tectonics and continents?
This question is essential because Earth has tectonics in the first place and this question
will help in understanding the way it closely related to other specific aspects of Earth. From the
new data and information it becomes easy to know that climate and erosion play significant rile
in building and shaping mountain range (Montemor, & Ferreira, 2008).
Question 6: How are Earth processes controlled by material properties?
The given question is important for creating a good understanding related to the earth
process controlled by material properties. Therefore, for understanding this key process are the
basic physics and chemistry of planetary materials (Maruyama & Santosh, 2008). Along with
this the high pressure and temperature this are the challenges which are met with the new
research tool.
Relationship between these questions
There is relationship between these questions such as resolving the critical questions related to
planetary evolution will require enough knowledge of planetary materials and the way they
impact convection (Question 6),
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3 A HABITABLE PLANET
Question 7: What causes climate to change—and how much can it change?
This Question is important because it emerges the picture that is numerous factors which
contribute to governing Earth's climate, but the way it interplay of these factors results in a
specific climate state is yet not answerable.
Question 8: How has life shaped Earth—and how has Earth shaped life?
This question shows the interesting possibility to the life for itself governing climate and
different aspects of Earth's surface condition. On the same time it helps in understanding the
serious detrimental to life, which lead to once in a while killing off huge number. Further it
assists in understanding the way life can have manifested itself and left traced preserved in the
geological records of other planets (Hudry, Bardez & Deniard, 2008).
Relationship between these questions
The chapter addresses major questions which are related to the way earth surface
condition can change. Along with this at the same time it can be maintained between limits that
which are conductive to life over extremely long time. The question 7 is related to the geological
and astronomical factors which affects the geological evidence of climate and also the climate.
On the other side question 8 reflect the relationship between climate, Geology and life.
4 HAZARDS AND RESOURCES
Question 9: Can earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and their consequences be predicted?
This question is important because it helps in identifying that volcanic eruption,
earthquake and it consequences can be identified or not. It is a continuing challenging as our
depending on the understanding of the way fault ruputers start and stop for improving simulation
of so that shaking can be expected in large earthquake. One of the main importance of this
question is to develop a clear picture of the movement of magma, from the Earth crust at place
where it is stored and to the surface where it is erupts.
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Question 10: How do fluid flow and transport affect the human environment?
This question is important because it show the way fluid flow and transport affect the
human environment. One of the important objective is to understand the way fluids flow and
they transport materials and heat.
Relationship between these questions
There is relationship between both the question 9 and 10. Here, question 9 is comprises
two grand questions which show the earthquake and volcanic eruptions. In question 10 there are
some issues which addressing the fundamental science which consider different issues regarding
water, land, mineral etc.
There is relationship between question 4,5 and 9 as it can be stated that earthquake and
volcanic eruption are sudden and hazardous manifestos of the normally gradual movements of
Earth interior.
B Comparison between earth and other planet from book and the present research
The Earth and other planet is formed is one of the challenging and appropriate question
related to Earth formation. As it because in whole universe our planet is one of the planet where
life exists. In Solar System with enough liquid water show that it can be used to make organic
matters. In the research of 2008 from the books it has been find out that how much is unique, or
unusual the solar system. However, the observation of other planetary system is provided new
idea the way planets forms and evolve. In 2008 research occur on 'How did Earth and other
planet form” it helps in identifying that any of the planet in Solar system are not suitable for the
complex life as it compare to Earth. However, the odds are good that there is another life in our
galaxy which is not yet confirmed (Maruyama & Santosh, 2008). As considering the evident
density of Earth- like life, it is essential for understanding what the things went for making Earth
appropriate for life and the way life was in parts. It has been identified that Earth works, from the
inner most core to the atmosphere, oceans and land surface. Further the solar system is composed
of radically different types of planets. There are outer and inner planets this are distinguished on
the basis of their size and their low density. The outer planets are type of planet and it can be
easily acknowledged orbiting other stars Then inner planets are Earth, Mars, Venus, and
Mercury while outer planner is Saturn, Neptune, Jupiter and Uranus. The inner planet are made
up of metal, rock, and less amount of gaseous material. Further there suitable model is chosen for
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the formation of both type of planet but there is one of the major deficiency and uncertainty at
great extent. As per the standard model for the formation of outer planet, the formation of giant
planets starts with natural process and conglutination of icy and rocky material. Further this solid
bodies attract different gas from the circumstellar disk. This model can be fit on two largest outer
planets that is Jupiter and Saturn. It is so because it consists of primarily of Hydrogen and helium
in roughly solar proportions. On the other hand there are two planets that is Jupiter and Saturn
which have less quantity of helium and hydrogen. Along with this alternative for this model is
knowns as the Rock and ice balls which are needed for the induce the formation of gas giant
planets. They can form directly with the dust in the disk which can break under its own gravity.
This model excess the quantity of heavy elements in Jupiter and Saturn which have been gather
by and capturing of smaller rocky and icy bodies. There is one significance different between
inner and outer planets is knowns as the temperature which is reflected in the Solar nebula
(Honma, Koshiba & Komatsu, 2008).
On the other hand from new article “How was earth formed” it reflects that although
planets surrounds around the stars in the galaxy, and they way they become topic for debates.
Instead of the wealth of Worlds within the solar system scientist are still unable to conduct
appropriate research on the way planets are built. There are two theories which help in reflecting
the way earth was formed. First theory which is accepted theory it cores accumulation, works
well with the manufacture of terrestrial planets such as Earth but it has issues with large planets.
Then another method is knows as the disk instability method which taken into the account for the
creation of these large planets. Further, research is continued for study planets in and out of the
solar system for depth understanding which of these methods is most accurate.
The core accretion model
Just about 4.6 billion years ago the Solar system was only a cloud of dust and gas that is
knowns as a Solar nebula. Gravity breaks the material in on itself and it began to spin, making
the sun in the centre of the nebula. Sun rises up due to which al the remaining material started to
cluster up. Due to the force of gravity the small particle drew together and bound into the large
particles. Al the lighter elements were swept away by the solar wind that is helium and Hydrogen
from the closer region and it only leaves heavy rocky material for creating smaller terrestrial
worlds such as Earth. On the other hand The Solar materials have less impact on the lighter
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elements due to which it allows them to coalesce into gas largely. Through this way planets,
comets, moons were created. First of all the rocky core of Earth was formed as because heavy
elements clash and constricting together (Fitoussi, Bourdon & Wang, 2016). Due to which dense
material was submerged together into the centre and other lighter material created the crust. For
making the atmosphere at planets the gravity capture some gases. In early procedures it has been
identified that young planets mantle into space. These all piece through gravity complied
together and form the moon, this make up path around its creator. Further, clash and break of
small particles of planets given rise to volcanoes and mountains. This lead to start spit gases into
the all the surrounding environment. As per NASA, core accretion model suggest that a rock
world which is small is more common as compare to the more large gas giants. This confirmed
the theory for the formation of planet and show proof that planets of different kinds exists in
abundance. According to the core accretion theory, the core of a planet should reach the critical
mass before it able provide path to gas.
The disk instability model
For the terrestrial planet the accretion model is appropriate, but large gas need to be
process fastly for grabbing hold of the important mass of lighter gases as they contain. As per the
model it can be stated that entire process take several million years, as compare to the longer
gases which are exists in the early solar systems (Zhang, Sun & Tao, Z. 2015). At the same time,
the core accretion model face problem related to migration because the baby planets are likewise
turbinate into the sun in less time. On the other hand as per the theory of disk instability dust and
gas are complied together in early time of the solar system. After, a time this all cluster
consolidated into a big planet.
As compare to the research discussed in the book and new research they found is that
both use different theories for investigating the way earth formed. In research of 2008 it has been
identified that Solar system was composed of radically different types of planets such as there
are outer and inner planets. On the other hand in present study it reflects that planets surrounds
around the star in the galaxy (Choi, Seo & Bae, 2016). There are two different theories used for
reflecting the way earth was formed. Its first theory help in investigating the way terrestrial
planets formed but it enable to done appropriate on large planets. While, in text problem the
model excess the quantity of heavy elements such as Jupiter and Saturn. However, the way earth
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formed is same in both research and result was also reflected some similarity in both
investigation.
Conclusion
From the above report it can conclude that all the question present in text are important
and appropriate for conducting the research. There are also some relationship between all the
questions. Further it can be concluded that there are different models are used in both text and
new research for investigating the way earth was formed. Along with this, in new research
understanding was enhanced related to earth formed. But there is also similarity in both the
research of text and new research which show the way different planets and earth formation.
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References
Books and journals
Bojarczuk Jr, N. A., Buchanan, D. A., Guha, S., Narayanan, V., & Ragnarsson, L. A. (2008). U.S.
Patent No. 7,432,550. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
Chen, W., Overstreet, J. L., & Stevens, J. H. (2017). U.S. Patent No. 9,687,940. Washington, DC:
U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
Choi, S. H., Seo, S. J., Zhao, D., Park, K. T., Kim, B. S., Kim, T. S., & Bae, B. S. (2016).
Enhanced luminescence characteristics of mesophase silica thin films doped with in-situ-
formed rare earth complexes. Science of Advanced Materials. 8(1). 122-127.
Fitoussi, C., Bourdon, B., & Wang, X. (2016). The building blocks of Earth and Mars: A close
genetic link. Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 434. 151-160.
Honma, T., Koshiba, K., Benino, Y., & Komatsu, T. (2008). Writing of crystal lines and its
optical properties of rare-earth ion (Er 3+ and Sm 3+) doped lithium niobate crystal on
glass surface formed by laser irradiation. Optical Materials. 31(2), 315-319.
Hudry, D., Bardez, I., Rakhmatullin, A., Bessada, C., Bart, F., Jobic, S., & Deniard, P. (2008).
Synthesis of rare earth phosphates in molten LiCl–KCl eutectic: Application to
preliminary treatment of chlorinated waste streams containing fission products. Journal of
Nuclear Materials, 381(3), 284-289.
Kang, F., Wang, Q., Shou, W., Collins, C. D., & Gao, Y. (2017). Alkali–earth metal bridges
formed in biofilm matrices regulate the uptake of fluoroquinolone antibiotics and protect
against bacterial apoptosis. Environmental Pollution, 220, 112-123.
Kumar, M. V., Kuribayashi, K., Yu, J., Okada, J., & Ishikawa, T. (2013). Microstructure and
Magnetic Properties of Metastable RFeO3 (R: Rare‐earth element) Formed from
Undercooled Melt. Journal of the American Ceramic Society, 96(3), 995-1002.
Maruyama, S., & Santosh, M. (2008). Models on Snowball Earth and Cambrian explosion: a
synopsis. Gondwana Research, 14(1), 22-32.
Minganti, V., Drava, G., De Pellegrini, R., Modenesi, P., Malaspina, P., & Giordani, P. (2014).
Temporal trends (1981–2007) of trace and rare earth elements in the lichen Cetraria
islandica (L.) Ach. from Italian herbaria. Chemosphere, 99, 180-185.
Montemor, M. F., & Ferreira, M. G. S. (2008). Analytical characterisation and corrosion
behaviour of bis-aminosilane coatings modified with carbon nanotubes activated with rare-
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earth salts applied on AZ31 Magnesium alloy. Surface and Coatings Technology, 202(19),
4766-4774.
Quintana, E. V., Barclay, T., Borucki, W. J., Rowe, J. F., & Chambers, J. E. (2016). The
frequency of giant impacts on Earth-like worlds. The Astrophysical Journal, 821(2), 126.
Zhang, D. Q., Sun, T., Zhang, Y. Q., Xue, S. F., Zhu, Q. J., Zhang, J. X., & Tao, Z. (2015).
Coordination of Alkaline‐Earth Metal Ions in Inverted Cucurbit [6] uril Supramolecular
Assemblies Formed in the Presence of Tetrachloride Zincates. European Journal of
Inorganic Chemistry, 2015(2), 318-323.
Online
Redd. N. T., 2016. How was earth formed? [Online] Available through:
<https://www.space.com/19175-how-was-earth-formed.html>. [Accessed on 12th july,
2017].
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