HNC/HND Civil Engineering Technology: Earthworks, Safety, and More

This report, prepared for a Higher National Certificate/Diploma in Construction and the Built Environment, delves into critical aspects of civil engineering technology. It begins with an overview of earthworks, detailing the processes of excavation, haulage, unloading, and compaction, and discusses various equipment used. The report then explores foundation techniques, including the use of piles, explaining different types such as end bearing and friction piles, and their applications in various scenarios. Furthermore, it examines culverts and underpasses, describing their construction methods. The report also investigates methods and techniques utilized in large and complex earth moving operations and deep excavations, including full open cut, bracing, anchored, island, and top-down excavation methods, addressing the impact of ground conditions on building design. A significant portion is dedicated to construction site safety, covering hazards and precautions in confined spaces, work at height, and temporary works, along with a detailed safety plan. The report emphasizes the importance of safety protocols, company policies, and site-specific standards to ensure a safe working environment. The document is well-structured, including a safety plan, and is approximately 2500 words in length.

18: Civil Engineering Technology
First Name Last Name
Higher National Certificate/Diploma in Construction and the Built Environment
April 5, 2020

Task 1
a) Earthwork is a method that includes drilling, moving and compacting the surface at a site.
Four processes involved in earthworks, such as; excavation, haulage, unloading and
compaction. Earthworks were primarily done at the early construction stage. The
execution of the earthwork during the specified planning time is also the cornerstone to
the success of the project on schedule, which indicates that the earthwork is a significant
undertaking the building process (Berryman, OCarroll, & Fowler, 2016). There are 3
forms of work in earthworks:
(a) Site clearing. Act to eliminate light brush, bushes, existing construction and
vegetation
(b) Digging of foundations and trenches. The limited scale of the excavation happens
while the wide bulk earth moving plant need not be utilized
(c) bulk excavation. The excavation that allows the more intensive excavation work,
including cutting and filling and foundation excavation.
The following are the equipment required by the foundation earthworks: Hydraulic excavator,
Tractor / trucks, Kassi, Pickaxe, Rammer, Wedge, Boning Rod, Iron Pan, hydraulic compactor,
Sledge Hammer etc. Scope of Operation for Excavation and Backfilling of the land; Setting out
corner benchmarks, Survey for ground level, Survey for top level, digging to accepted
depth, Installation of dewatering wells and interlinking trenches, Development of building
boundaries, Installation of safety bunds and drains (Lamont, 2012).
b) A pile is a vertical structural feature with a deep base, pushed or sunk deep underground
at the construction site. Precast piles are pushed to the ground using a pile system. Driven
piles are built of reinforced concrete. timber or steel. They are lined with rebars and are
also pre-stressed. Driven piles, as contrasted to digging shafts, are better as the material
shifted by moving the piles constricts the adjacent soil. Foundations depending on driven
piles also have bands of piles bound by a pile cap to disperse loads greater than a pile
they can carry. Pile caps and isolated piles are usually attached to grade beams to bind the
base structures around each other; lighter structural components rely onto the grade
beams, whereas heavy elements bear exclusively on the pile cap (CHUDLEY, 2017).

Pile structures are used in the following scenarios:
 where the soil becomes thin on the land thus insufficient soil bearing capacity.
 If a structure contains very strong, compact loads, like the high-rise building.
There are two types of pile foundations:
i. End bearing piles; the pile end lies on a surface of extremely hard ground or rock.
The load of the structure is passed to the firm layer via the pile. In a way, this pile
is behaving like a column. The main concept here is the pile end lies on the
ground, which is the boundary between a soft and solid base. The load, thus,
overrides the poor layer and is securely passed to the firm ground/ layer.
ii. Friction piles; in this type, the pile passes the load of the structure to the firm
ground through the pile height, by means of friction. In other terms, the whole
framework of the pile, that is cylindrical in form, acts to move the stresses to the
ground.
c) Culvert is characterized as a tunnel network built beneath interstates which make
available cross drains or electrical cables across sections. It is fully covered by soil or
water. Pipe culvert, arch culvert and box culvert are popular forms of culvert. When a
single pipe culvert is required, a large diameter culvert is mounted. If the channel breadth
is larger, then a series of pipe culverts are installed to adequately handle the expected
flows.
The underpass or subway is a tunnel comprising a lane or a pedestrian path passing under
a bridge or railroad. There are three main methods for constructing underpasses:
i. Precast concrete units: are mostly assembled as standard elements and may be
mounted as complete units, portal frame parts, or as individual roof and wall
structures.
ii. In situ concrete. In situ concrete underpasses are built using same techniques as
any underground tunnel infrastructure.
iii. Thrust-bored units. Thrust-bored units include the attachment of bentonite for
cushioning. As a way of transferring the thrust load, the units will be in close
contact with the edge rather than with the semi-formed locking plate. This
deburring procedure will require communication with the outside of the jack but

be capable of obtaining a bonding material from the inside of the jack. It can be
achieved by shaping a discounted mortar-filled joint before applying.
d) methods and techniques utilized in large and complex earth moving operations and deep
excavations include;
 Full Open Cut Method; This classified into two principal forms, namely sloped full
open cut and cantilever full open cut. The first form is believed to be economic
because the construction side will be sloping and requires not any protection for the
shell of the base. Even so, whether the slope is substantially moderate or the trench is
relatively wide, it would be costly. The second form requires a retaining wall to
protect the foundation wall soil to keep the foundation wall from crumbling, but does
not entail backing or slopes. Consequently, it must not be conclusively asserted that
the approach has a higher cost impact. The budgetary approach may be differentiated
on the basis of the findings of study, architecture and assessment (Griffiths &
Radford, 2012).
 Bracing Excavation Method; Excavation bracing is the positioning of longitudinal
struts beside the retaining wall to support the excavation wall with structural strength.
The bracing framework consists of columns, struts, middle pillars, end and corner
braces. Earth pressure is transmitted to the longitudinal struts via the wall, and the
aim of the corner and end braces is to reduce the wall span while increasing the
number of struts. Center posts protect struts from collapsing from their own weight
(Griffiths & Radford, 2012).
 Anchored Excavation Methods: In this method, anchors are mounted to overcome the
weight of the earth. The confined section of the anchor supplies the stabilizing power
acting towards soil stress whereas the unrestrained section of the anchor transition
strain is transferred to the head of the anchor which moves loads to the retaining wall
(Harris, McCaffer, & Edum-Fotwe, 2013).
 Island Excavation Methods: In this approach, the middle of the excavation zone is
excavated and dug up soil is put next to the retaining wall to produce a slope.
 Top Down Excavation Methods: in this methodology, the development starts from the
top to the bottom of the foundation. the design of the frame continues upon

completion of the first slab. As a consequence, slabs are built once respectively level
of excavation is done. (Hmmady, 2016).
e) The steeper the ground the higher the expense, with costly retaining walls frequently
needed on gradients greater than 1:25 to keep the ground stable. This impact building
positioning and elevation. One choice is to construct a slope, dig to establish a level
foundation. Similarly, you may want to stretch the structure laterally with reinforcement
walls installed under the elevated section. The preferred solution is to match the building
to the slope with a sequence of steps to establish a split-level plan. It would be raising the
volume of excavation, but it will also contribute up to 10% to the estimated cost of
building. Nonetheless, sloping sites may offer an incentive to incorporate extra space by
incorporating the basement as a cost-effective way to fill the gap while rising up over the
ground (Sivakugan, Shukla, & Das, 2013).
Additionally, use of piles driven deep into the hard rock can be considered to sufficiently
anchor the structure. This approach has become popular in-house construction after the
introduction of affordable short-circuit systems built utilizing leased mini-piling rigs.
Piles are positioned nearly every 2.5 m underneath the primary walls and at intersections
and corners (Pellicer, 2014). When the solid stratum is achieved, it can be overlaid with
mushroom-like 'pile caps' over which longitudinal reinforced concrete rings beams are
mounted to protect the primary walls (V., 2011).
Thirdly, raft foundations can be used. A raft is a large horizontal reinforced concrete slab
that stretches across the whole house. Through dividing the load over the whole body, the
load per unit area is the, rendering the raft ideal for soil instability.
Task 2
a) Work in confined spaces can produce a risk of death or serious injury from hazardous
conditions such as pits, and trenches, drains and sewers, poor ventilated spaces etc.
some of the hazards include; dusts, oxygen deficiency, absence of natural light or
proper lighting, hot working conditions etc. ("Safety Management in Construction
and Engineering: An Introduction", 2015). Safety precautions when working in

confined spaces include; ensure safe systems of work as guided on the work method
system and permit to work requirements, ensure suitable level of ventilation and use
of breathing respirators, isolation of local utilities such as gas, water, electricity etc.
as well as use of personal protective equipment (Ottosson, 2016).
Work at height, that is working on tall structures has been documented to be the most
fatal resulting from falls from height (Yorke, 2017). Hazards include; heights,
slippery surfaces, poorly installed scaffold and working platforms etc. safety
precautions include; suitable training on work at height to personnel involved,
provision of safety nets to mitigate against any incidences of falls, use of suitable
equipment such as double lanyard safety harness etc. (CLARKE, 2017).
For temporary works across highways and interconnecting infrastructures, risks of
death and injury from motor knocks, falling objects, sharp edges are perceived. Safety
precautions include use of zebra crossings and pedestrian overpasses or underpasses
for pedestrian, road bumps at crossing sections of crossing and proper signages and
lighting along the highways (HUNG-KWONG, 2019).
b)
Safety plan
i. Scope/ activity: Excavation and trenching works.
ii. Commitment to environmental health and safety. All are responsible for the climate,
protection and welfare of the company. As a condition of employment with the
company, all workers are liable for safety adoption as a priority and keeping with the
best practices of the highest economic, safety and health requirements and guidance.
iii. Company’s construction safety standards. Anyone participating with the project
should recognize his or her obligation for the health and welfare of the team. With
specified duties, management, oversight, subcontractors and staff should be kept
responsible for their success in terms of health and safety. Both front-line supervisors
are expected to hold a crew pre-deployment meeting prior to the deployment of their
teams so that they may provide detailed instruction and analysis of the approvals,
documents, protocols and protection measures provided by this program, as well as

the relevant project details needed to organize their job and ready their crews
appropriately. Lead Subcontractor Director The OSHA 30 Hour Outreach Learning
will be conducted on site. Each staff shall take part in an economic, health and safety
induction before beginning any work on the job.
iv. Company’s construction safety policies. The aim of the company safety strategy is to
help project managers, supervisors, subcontractors and staff grasp the concept of the
company Construction Accident Free Workplace and the health and safety standards
and specifications of its ventures. Both accidents must be reported immediately to the
company and subcontractor administrators. Documented reports would be forwarded
to the management of the company at the same move. Subcontractors shall send a
copy of the First Incident Evaluation form to LCC Administration. In the case of
injuries or collateral harm during an accident / information, the appropriate
Contractor Delegate shall notify the construction Supervisor and receive an
Information Kit including all relevant types and resources. All incidents, like first aid,
should be examined by the company for the purpose of deciding whether to avoid
recurrent accidents. The supervisor of the company works and the subcontractor boss
shall develop a strong working partnership with the injured party and ensure that all
the needs of the injured worker are addressed, and the needs of the accident recovery
system.
v. Construction site specific standards. The following criteria were identified for this
project after an overview of the threats and procedures expected for this area of
research. It is worth noting that in the case of a regulation or guideline not meeting
the applicable requirements in CFR 1910 and CFR 1926, the OSHA guidelines
remain in force. Prior to the land disturbance, excavation or trenching of the site, the
preceding shall be carried out: the company shall subpoena the owner of the property
for current underground private services. Contractors shall contact the public service
site authority. The contractor shall classify the individual responsible and apply the
credentials for examination and acceptance by the firm. The following criteria must
be met during construction or trenching activities on the project: all trenches and
excavations must be barricaded and signposted in the work area. Fall protection shall
be provided for excavations of six feet or more in size. Trenches or excavations shall

be angled or installed in compliance with local rules and regulations and shall be
decided by a competent person. Supporting structures (e.g. shoring, stacking, trench
frames, etc.) should be required for all trenches and excavations wherever sloping or
benching will not be carried out. Spoil piles and any other content must be situated at
least two feet from the sides of all trenches or excavations.
Excavation and trenching risk assessment
Risk Severit
y
Probability Risk
level
before
contro
l
Existing
controls
Risk
level
with
controls
Additional
controls
Risk
level
with
added
controls
Ac
by
Falls from
height
S P H Where there is
a possibility
that occupants
or
representatives
of the public
may fall
through
excavations,
the sites
should be
protected by
means of
concrete walls
and warning
signals, all
excavations
that are
needed to be
L L

left
unsupervised
must be
guarded by the
Herras fence.
Access
into
excavation
S O M Access and
exit from and
through the
excavation
will be by
protected
means only
such as a
locked ladder.
M ladders to
be
regularly
checked
in line
with
testing
schedule
L
Method statement
Ground conditions defined by the survey to determine the form of field on which the
excavation is to be taken; means of trench protection verified upon execution of the
test holes. Note that even operating in superficial trenches may be risky (Karkoszka,
2015). You may need to have assistance while the job requires bending or sitting in
the trench. Everyone will be in the trench until it is safe to be in it. If practicable,
ensure that all outlets of water are turned off before reaching the excavation
(McAleenan & Oloke, 2015).
c) This third version of Health and Safety in Construction lays forth the main activities
for ensuring good and sustainable construction sites. This lets the user recognize
threats and manage dangers and describes how to schedule, coordinate, track, monitor
and evaluate health and safety over the life of the project. This is targeted at all those
interested in building projects, namely owners, builders, contractors and actual
employees. Customers, builders and those who define building work can still consider
the book useful.

d) The safety plans documents and guides company’s efforts to mitigate against risks
and response in the event the risk occurs. The risk assessments assess the likelihood
of occurrence of the risk during excavation and trenching work when various safe
work procedures and measures are put in place. The method statement outlines the
safe work methodology and supervisor in safety execution of excavation and
trenching works taking due considerations to the risks involved hence limiting risks
occurrence, severity and likelihood on site.
Task 3
a) Whether to use in situ construction or precast forms casted offsite.
Environmentally, pre-cast construction is beneficial as it reduces on-site activities,
raw materials and batching on site hence allowing minimum pollution to the
environment and the river in proximity with the site. This kind of construction
additionally offers a defined finish with components designed at the required
material and component strengths (Griffith & Watson, 2004). However, this
choice could be economically more demanding than in situ construction
considering machinery involved, few competitive companies or manufacturers
involved, possibility of delay or wrong dimensions leading to lost times as well as
costs of delivery and installation of parts which heavily rely on weight hoisting
devices, equipment and machinery.
Putting all these factors into consideration, in-situ construction with close task
supervision and regulation of the process with competent persons and compliance
to design specifications, standards and guidelines is not only economical but also
offers a chance for better finishing options and adjustments, environmentally
friendly practices as well employment creation to the immediate site environment
and more construction experts.
b) Environmental contexts: any liquid wastes such as paints, admixtures, binders,
and waterproofing products to be directed to a localized waste treatment site plant
for pretreatment before disposal onto the natural stream. Extracted chemical and
unrefined component to be properly disposed as regulated by waste contracting
company continuously from site.

Geotechnical contexts: any wastes generated from earthworks and geological
surveys to be suitably disposed in such a manner that the geological
characteristics of the neighboring geology is not neglected or negatively induced.
Quality context: qualified experts and quality standards officers deployed to site,
continuous material strengths of any connections and professional execution and
observation to the optimum design considerations and quality of materials for the
project.
Economic context: Emphasis on quality, environmental, geological and
economical consideration as a whole not just adopting a criteria or design based
on economic implications alone.
Task 4
a) Primarily there exists two methods/ techniques of highway design such as:
flexible pavement and rigid pavements. The method adopted depends on the
specifications of the road which is a function of factors such as; road
classification, type, expected load/ traffic intensity, costs, landscape terrain,
weather, sub-soil or strata type as well as existence and level of subsoil water
(Highway design, 2016).
Considering the project size, we definitely expect high traffic intensity with
relatively high loads, possibility of sub-soil water or close ground water table
hence a rigid pavement road would be well suited but is a very costly. In such
regards, the company should consider flexible pavements with bitumen
finished properly compacted and raised to grade with RCC bridge where the
road bypasses a river (Yaghoubi, 2018).
b) Techniques/ methods in bridge foundations include:
i. Piling; piles are lifted up into the air by a crane and pushed to the
bottom by a massive hammer or a piledriver. Once the pile hits the
appropriate depth, it is capped off and matched. Piles may be
constructed from a variety of materials, including concrete, concrete or

even timber. Reinforced concrete, nevertheless, is by far the most
popular (Chen & Duan, 2014).
ii. Battered piles; Rather than a single post, battered piles using a number,
kind of like a bent fork. They are lowered out of a barge onto the sea,
in which they are pushed onto thick mud. The "tines" of the broken
piles distribute the weight in many directions to offer optimum
strength (Salem, 2014).
iii. Cofferdam; Many thin, sheet-like piles are mounted as a group to
create a watertight enclosure named a cofferdam. The cavity is then
put onto the soil where the water is drained out. When the towers are
clear of mud, the crew build the towers inside the dry cofferdam. The
consequence is a solid base that will provide support for ages (Das &
Sobhan, 2018).
iv. Slurry drilling; As the surface at the base of the waterway is quite
thick, it is rather difficult to drill and avoid caving in. To do so, a
muddy mixture is put in the position of the target pit. when this is in
place, the foundations are put in place (Greeno, 2016).
Techniques in flexible highway construction foundation
 Flexible pavements include foundation courses of broken stone fragments either
compacted in McAdam design or fused along with bitumen to form asphalt. In order to
achieve durability, the rocks are typically smaller than 1.5 inches in size and sometimes
smaller than 1 inch in size. Standard layers of a traditional flexible pavement contain a
sealing paint, a surface paint, a tack layer, a binder layer, a base layer, a sub base layer, a
compacted subgrade and a standard subgrade. Surface course is a layer that is specifically
in touch with traffic loads and usually comprises great quality materials. They are
normally made of thick graded asphalt (AC) concrete. The binder course is useful in load
distribution to the base course. The base course offers additional load distribution as well
as contributing to sub surface drainage. The sub base course offer structural support

besides reducing fines intrusion from subgrade and improving drainage (Geotechnical
engineering, 2016).
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