The Development and Rituals of Chan Buddhism in East Asia

This essay examines the development and practices of Chan Buddhism, originating in China and later influencing Japan as Zen. It delves into the core tenets, including meditation, the relationship between master and follower, and the emphasis on direct experience over scriptures. The essay explores the historical context, including the persecution of Buddhism and the rise of different lineages. It also discusses the doctrinal cornerstones, such as the disregard for literal standards and the importance of circumventing discursive thinking. Furthermore, the essay analyzes the role of ritual practices, including the 'Ascending the Hall' ceremony and the use of portraits of abbots, highlighting the evolution of Chan's approach to death rituals and its relationship with local religious cults. The essay concludes by discussing the significance of these rituals in legitimizing connections and the functional similarity of portraits to relics and stupas.

Running head: EAST ASIAN PHILOSOPHY AND CULTURE
EAST ASIAN PHILOSOPHY AND CULTURE
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EAST ASIAN PHILOSOPHY AND CULTURE
Introduction
The Chan School is recognized as an indigenous practice of Chinese Buddhism
established in the initial phase of the sixth century CE. While, the Sinograph ‘chan’ records
the Sanskrit dhyāna or “meditation” and Chan zong has been interpreted as the “Meditation
School”, Chan had not been characteristic within Chinese Buddhism in its usage of
contemplative methods. Chan Buddhism is renowned as a significant Chinese Buddhism cult
is a characteristic of Bodhidharma which had shed light on attaining Buddhahood1. Moreover
the ultimate Buddhist sacred goal had been accepted by Japan in the name of Zen. In the
domain of Chan Buddhism, the term ‘‘Chan’’ had been derived from ‘‘Dhyana’’ in Sanskrit
language. This term had drawn relevance to deliberation, and samadhi which relates to one-
pointed attentiveness or seamless absorption. However, this term had surpassed the
connotation of dhyana in order to develop as the manifestation of understanding with
immediate seamless self-control of the mind. Considering such emphasis on individual
explanation of the mind in the present form, Chan Buddhism had been distinguished from the
other Buddhist groups by its insolence towards sacred ceremonies, sacred manuscripts,
devout statistics or knowledgeable understanding2. Rather it had thrown light on
contemplation, instinct, association between master and follower and practising as well as
understanding within the ordinary current life. As per studies, Chan Buddhism developed in
China in the form of radical reiteration of the predominance of personified practice3. The
thesis statement of the essay is “The Chan sect developed as a more shielded way of practice
with a more permanent and secured form for enlightenment.”
1 Faure, Bernard. "The Heart of Buddhist Ritual: Relics, Reliquaries, and Icons." International Journal of
Buddhist Thought and Culture 27, no. 2 (2017): 5-12.
2 De Witt, Lindsey. "Mountain Buddhism in East Asia." Oxford Bibliographies in Buddhism (2019).
3 Froese, Katrin. "Laughing for Nothing in Chan Buddhism." In Why Can’t Philosophers Laugh?, pp. 173-213.
Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2017.

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EAST ASIAN PHILOSOPHY AND CULTURE
Discussion
Development of Chan Buddhism
Chan had traced its heritages from the explicit refutation of the ultimate authority of
writing. It had been combined with a claim that actual Buddhist teachings can not to be found
in books or recollected thing. It can be found in the direct and personal encounters of
Buddhist masters and their followers. The iconic standard of this break had related to the
period of transmission which had taken place during the preaching of around 10,000 people
on the Vulture Peak. After several decades, Bodhidharma had come to be regarded as the
second Chan Patriarch in China4. Such an explanation of Chan ancestries had been deep-
rooted by the 10th century along with the rudiments which had already been shared by the
late 6th and early 7th centuries. A major proportion of Chan’s particulars had been regarded as
inventions of tradition. However, the story of Chan’s origins had offered an effective way of
explaining the logical concerns that influenced Chan identity. The identity of Chan had been
formed as per the teachings of non-duality and the Buddha nature. Moreover, during the
repercussion of a devastating purge of Buddhism from 841 to 845, whereby several monks
and religious followers had been compelled to return to and sacrifice their lives and more
than 5000 temples, hermitages and Buddhist libraries had been damaged. As per
comprehensive studies, Linji Yixuan known as one of the most powerful teachers in Chan
history interpreted these teachings to their revolutionary extreme. He also contradicted the
pronounced Buddhist scriptures as “hitching posts for donkeys” and encouraged all the
individuals who viewed “the Buddha” on the path to execute him5. Even though the
metropolitan, narrative based schools of Chinese Buddhism had been damaged by the middle
of the 9th century, rural Chan communities thrived. The most important reason for their
4 Capitanio, Joshua. "Portrayals of Chan Buddhism in the Literature of Internal Alchemy." Journal of Chinese
Religions 43, no. 2 (2015): 119-160.
5 Kellenberger, James. The Everlasting and the Eternal. Springer, 2015.

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survival was professed Guiyang lineages, “five houses” or Linji, Caodong, Yunmen and
Fayan. Collections of ‘encounter discourses’ between Chan masters and their followers
reverberated well with Chinese literati. Nonetheless, with the breakdown of the Tang dynasty
from 618–907 along with the establishment of the Song from 960 to 1279, Chan prosperities
continued to develop as an original form of Chinese Buddhism6. The Chinese Buddhism
united with the scholars in using ancestral cultural conducts (guwen) to craft a different regal
individuality for China. Furthermore, by the 12th century, Chan showed sacred as well as
political prestige in addition to the massive preponderance of public hermitages maintained
by the Song court. These hermitages had been dedicated to the practice of Chan.
Doctrinal Cornerstones of Chan Buddhism
Chan Buddhism had gained substantial attention and recognition from other Buddhist
sects by its disregard for literal standard as well as rational thinking along with an
extraordinary exhibition of unusual behaviours and at certain points, a demonstration of
extremely intellectual exemplification in language and art. The doctrinal cornerstones relied
on meditation, reflection, master and follower relations and practicing as well as realizing
within the ordinary life. The essential thread associated with the Chan cornerstones had been
regarded as a need to circumvent the conventional dishonoured as well as discursive
cognitive thinking7. Such thinking has been linked to the unadulterated as well as non-
discursive mind of explanation which possibly would get revealed. In contrast to other
Buddhist sect, the Chan Buddhism exhibited a de-emphasis on practices. Complete freedom
and unprompted equitable action suitable for the conditions had been supposed to be
achieved by means of enlightenment. Such attainment had led the devotion of prima facie
towards stringent ethical values to develop as an unnecessary and interference.
6 Kosei, I.S.H.I.I. "Huayan and Chan in the Context of East Asian Buddhism." International Journal of Buddhist
Thought and Culture 27, no. 1 (2017): 161-192.
7 Levering, Miriam L. "Pure Land Practices, the Huatou Revolution, and Dahui’s Discourse on the Moment of
Death." Pacific World: Journal of the Institute of Buddhist Studies 18 (2016): 175-202.

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Furthermore, the ultimate Chan doctrinal foundations described reasons to which
Chan masters educate students to practice by consumption of simple food and excretion and
wearing riggings with no need of medication. The example of Linji has been cited whereby
he rested on the Chan meditation hall after the enlightenment. It has been noted that the Chan
sect had gained attention by its impudence towards sacred symbols associated with Buddha,
patriarch or the sutras. Chan had aligned with the necessity to achieve complete non-dwelling
hollowness called Madhyamika, the central way8.
Comprehensive studies have argued that lineage communication established between
a master and his followers has been considered vital in the domain of Chan Buddhism. Such
importance has been taken into consideration due to its self-encounter of experiencing its
vitality and not focusing on the understanding of spiritual facts, philosophies or the
performance of spiritual behavioural rules. Distinctive accomplishment verification
guidelines take into account the ‘‘Ten Ox Herding Pictures’’9. This had illustrated the
advanced stages which an expert would go through by the equivalence of controlling the
mind comparable to domesticating the ox10.
Understanding Chan Buddhism through Ritual Practices
The influence of the hermeneutical approach to Buddhist studies facilitated a number
of scholars like John Maraldo, Carl Bielefeldt, Faure and Sharf to pose queries on the Sino-
Japanese historiographical tradition. According to studies, the anthropological facets of Chan
had been deliberated by scholars like Sharf as well as Faure who analysed the role played by
mummies and the additional form of ‘figure of the double’ presented in Chan. The
8 Pirruccello, Ann. "Awakening In The Hongzhou School of Chan Buddhism." Buddhisms in Asia: Traditions,
Transmissions, and Transformations (2019): 19.
9 Huang, Yi-Hsun. "Chan Master Hanyue’s Attitude toward Sutra Teachings in the Ming." Journal of the Oxford
Centre for Buddhist Studies 15 (2018).
10 Kalmanson, Leah. "The Ritual Methods of Comparative Philosophy." Philosophy East and West 67, no. 2
(2017): 399-418.

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fundamentality of rituals had been shown by scholars such as the ‘ascending the Hall’11.
However, other studies reflected the evolution of Chan approaches towards demise. These
explanations showed less reliance on well-established Japanese standpoints. These
explanations however distinguished it from virtuously textual educations. They had further
attempted to analyse linkages between Chan along with the local or popular religion. In light
of wide ranging studies, Chan Buddhism developed as orthodoxy by eliminating the
assortment of local religious cults and by unexpectedly containing a new narrative principle
such as the ‘Recorded Sayings’ in addition to additional ‘Histories of the Lamp’.
During the early 1100s, there had been an intricate memorial practice for Chan abbots
wherein the abbot’s image developed as the emphasis for bereavement observances directed
to the community. The development had been different from the observances of adjacent
followers who looked after the deceased body. In addition to the funerary function, the
portraits of abbots had been distributed amongst various adherents and followers.
Furthermore, in the ritual as well as established context of Chan royalism, these portrayals
had played equivalent roles as representations of the Buddha. Eventually, these portrayals had
ben ‘animated’ by the occurrence of relics. In contrast, they did not appear to serve a role in
Dharma communication12.
Subsequent to the funeral, the portrait had been preserved in the portrait-hall and
further received consistent assistances and observances suitable for an influential icon.
However, the ritual of Song practice acted as a reverberation of the archetypal of
communication found during the early 9th century. Nonetheless, in contrast to extensive
apprehension, portrayals had not been used as evidences of Dharma transmission. On the
other hand, scholars like Foulk and Sharf argued that the pattern made on the image showed
11 Fritz, Claudia. "An Interpretation of the Relationship between Chan-Buddhism and the State with Reference
to the Monastic Code at the End of the Yuan Era." Asiatische Studien-Études Asiatiques 70, no. 1 (2016): 13-74.
12 Zhouxiang, Lu. A History of Shaolin: Buddhism, Kung Fu and Identity. Vol. 70. Routledge, 2019.

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relation between the master, the portrait and the student13. Meanwhile, religious studies have
argued that Chan abbot portrait appeared to be more exclusive as compared to the
autographed image of any film celebrity. These portraits were considered as a sheet for Chan
rulers where they can write their objections regarding the practice of making these portraits.
In this way of sharing grievances, fine line of Chan Buddhism had been applied with greater
or lesser degree of skills. The ritual of Song auto-inscription typically reflected the ‘encounter
dialogue’ language of Chan Buddhism of intense criticisms and blatant unconventionality. An
example of such encounter dialogue’ language of Chan Buddhism is derived from the portrait
of Master Yangqi Fanghui, “A mouth like a beggar’s open sack; a nose like a shit ladle in the
garden! This gentleman troubled himself, applying his talented brush to the completion”14.
Subsequent to the analysis of the way wherein the personality of the portrayals in the
patriarchal galleries acted in order to legitimize specific connections, scholars like Sharf and
Foulk discussed the ritual practice and with more accuracy examined the funerary, practice of
these portrayals. In light with the Chinese funerary ritual practices, the portrayal of the
deceased had been considered as the position of his essence and served an equivalent role
similar to the funerary tablet. It has been noted that the Chan patriarchs as well as abbots
were consequently worshipped as lineages15. Nonetheless, prominent abbots had been
considered as living Buddha along with a new category comprising of worthies (zunzu)
whose confrontations had been documented for the future generations16. Such a status had
13 Sharf, Robert H. "4 Buddhist Veda and the Rise of Chan." In Chinese and Tibetan Esoteric Buddhism, pp. 85-
120. BRILL, 2017.
14 Rošker, Jana S. "Mindfulness and Its Absence–The Development of the Term Mindfulness and the Meditation
Techniques Connected to It from Daoist Classics to the Sinicized Buddhism of the Chan School." Asian
Studies 4, no. 2 (2016): 35-56.
15 Wang, Youru. Historical Dictionary of Chan Buddhism. Rowman & Littlefield, 2017.
16 Qing, M.I.N.G. "How Chan Buddhism Became a Reinvented School by the Song Dynasty." DEStech
Transactions on Social Science, Education and Human Science ichss (2017).

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found its most achievable appearance in the shangtang or the ‘Ascending the Hall’
ceremonial whereby an abbot recognizes in ritual context with the Buddha.
Scholars indicated that this cultic role of the ritual practice had been criticized within
the realm of Chan Buddhism. Such criticism had been concluded by a range of theories
typically accepted by art historians. Similarly, the difference between portraits of fathers and
abbots does not appear to be reasonable from the perspective of their assemblage in
patriarchal manors. However, the claim that these representations functioned as evidences of
Dharma communication did not appear to be authenticated. Faure’s understandings argued
that diffusion permitted a form of ‘transmission of charisma’ of similar form. Such diffusion
had been attained through remnants grounded on their preliminary function as funereal
objects. Nevertheless, scholars like Foulk and Sharf did not take into consideration that the
prescribed Dharma communication had been considered as only a specific case of diffusion
of attractiveness which could have been attained by distribution of remnants as well as of
portraits. According to comprehensive studies, in the form of religious icon, the portrayal had
been seen as functionally similar to the relics or the stupas which implied the presence of the
Buddha in very absence17. At such a juncture, the supposed ‘realism’ or ‘naturalism’ of Chan
photography had been purposeful.
As per the ritual sense of Sung Buddhist abbeys, the representation of the Buddha
along with the existing individual of the abbot, as well as the abbot’s portrayal had been
fundamentally exchangeable. It had reflected that the body of the living abbot similar to his
representation had been considered as the ‘simulacrum’ (xiang) of Buddhism. Furthermore,
the conception that the abbot as well as his presence had been in the same way simulacra,
virtual Buddha traced its origin to the 9th century idea of the Chan master. The understanding
of the 9th century notion of the Chan master reflected as a ‘living Buddha’. This had been
17 Wang, Youru. "Philosophical Interpretations of Hongzhou Chan Buddhist Thought." In Dao Companion to
Chinese Buddhist Philosophy, pp. 369-398. Springer, Dordrecht, 2018.

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conceptualised as the sacralisation of the ‘sudden’ philosophy of inherent Buddha nature
along with the understanding of the fundamental or subjected as the ultimate truth.
A broad range of studies argued that Buddhist saints’ portrayals whether being
sculptured or painted had not been brought into direct association with remains of the saints
to concentrate on the image of an object of devotion as well as source of miracles 18. It has
been argued that biographies of number of Sui and Tang masters had chronicled ways in
which their tombs turned into the concentrations of devotional factions after their demise,
with a portrayal of the deceased master performing as holy icon. However, it has been
asserted that ritual practices related to these portraits had been by no means limited to the
Chan School19.
On the other hand, Chan accentuated spiritual genealogy that had been considered as
one the essential forces of the fully establishment of patriarch halls. These halls developed as
an abundant characteristic of Chinese Buddhist cloisters in the Song. Although other Tang
Buddhist ritual practices like Zhenyan as well as Tianti cherished the portrayals of prominent
masters in particular reservations, these leaders had not been considered to have any lineal
genealogy of master. These halls exhibited close links between painting and memoire in the
Chan tradition20. These portrait galleries had not only been representative of the
denominational associations of a specific cloister but further performed to confirm sacred
convention on ancient such as hereditary grounds as well as to offer a platform for the
community ritual dedication of such assertions.
The identification of the abbot as well as Buddha had been made obvious in the
original Chan monastic encryption which asserted that the fundamental Buddha icon in the
18 Poceski, Mario. "Conceptions and Attitudes towards Contemplative Practice within the Early Traditions of
Chan Buddhism." Journal of Chinese Buddhist Studies 28 (2015): 67-116.
19 Wang, Y., 2017. Historical Dictionary of Chan Buddhism. Rowman & Littlefield.
20 Qing, M.I.N.G. "Chan Buddhism in Literati Culture During the Song Dynasty." DEStech Transactions on
Social Science, Education and Human Science mess (2017).

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Buddha hall had been replaced in the Tang Chan monasteries thus obviating the need for
Buddha hall altogether21. As per the ritual understanding of Song Buddhist cloisters, the
representation of the Buddha, the existing individual of the abbot as well as the abbot’s
representation had been fundamentally exchangeable. It further appeared that the body of the
existing abbot similar to the portrayal had been observed as the ‘simulacrum’ (xiang) of
Buddhist ritual practice.
Conclusion
To conclude, considering the institutional as well as ritual background of Song Chan
monasticism, the representation of an esteemed abbot had been known as a sacred icon. This
sacred icon had come to be respected as one would a representation of the Buddha. The
added incidence of the master’s written engraving would have recognized an operational
linking between the abbot’s appearance as well as his consecrated presence. The influence of
the hermeneutical approach to Buddhist studies facilitated a number of scholars like John
Maraldo, Carl Bielefeldt, Faure and Sharf to ask questions on the Sino-Japanese
historiographical tradition. Furthermore, one of the most powerful educators in Chan history
interpreted teachings to their revolutionary extreme and countered the noticeable Buddhist
scriptures as “hitching posts for donkeys” as well as motivated all the characters who viewed
“the Buddha” on the path to execute him. Furthermore, the essential thread related to the
Chan foundations had been observed as a need to bypass the conservative dishonoured as
well as broad cognitive thinking. Such thinking has been related to the pure and non-
discursive observance of enlightenment which conceivably would get discovered.
21 Tang, Yijie. "Immanence and Transcendence in Chinese Chan Buddhism." In Confucianism, Buddhism,
Daoism, Christianity and Chinese Culture, pp. 87-100. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2015.

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Bibliography
Capitanio, Joshua. "Portrayals of Chan Buddhism in the Literature of Internal
Alchemy." Journal of Chinese Religions 43, no. 2 (2015): 119-160.
De Witt, Lindsey. "Mountain Buddhism in East Asia." Oxford Bibliographies in
Buddhism (2019).
Faure, Bernard. "The Heart of Buddhist Ritual: Relics, Reliquaries, and Icons." International
Journal of Buddhist Thought and Culture 27, no. 2 (2017): 5-12.
Fritz, Claudia. "An Interpretation of the Relationship between Chan-Buddhism and the State
with Reference to the Monastic Code at the End of the Yuan Era." Asiatische Studien-Études
Asiatiques 70, no. 1 (2016): 13-74.
Froese, Katrin. "Laughing for Nothing in Chan Buddhism." In Why Can’t Philosophers
Laugh?, pp. 173-213. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2017.
Huang, Yi-Hsun. "Chan Master Hanyue’s Attitude toward Sutra Teachings in the
Ming." Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies 15 (2018).
Kalmanson, Leah. "The Ritual Methods of Comparative Philosophy." Philosophy East and
West 67, no. 2 (2017): 399-418.
Kellenberger, James. The Everlasting and the Eternal. Springer, 2015.
Kosei, I.S.H.I.I. "Huayan and Chan in the Context of East Asian Buddhism." International
Journal of Buddhist Thought and Culture 27, no. 1 (2017): 161-192.
Levering, Miriam L. "Pure Land Practices, the Huatou Revolution, and Dahui’s Discourse on
the Moment of Death." Pacific World: Journal of the Institute of Buddhist Studies 18 (2016):
175-202.
Pirruccello, Ann. "Awakening In The Hongzhou School of Chan Buddhism." Buddhisms in
Asia: Traditions, Transmissions, and Transformations (2019): 19.

11
EAST ASIAN PHILOSOPHY AND CULTURE
Poceski, Mario. "Conceptions and Attitudes towards Contemplative Practice within the Early
Traditions of Chan Buddhism." Journal of Chinese Buddhist Studies 28 (2015): 67-116.
Qing, M.I.N.G. "Chan Buddhism in Literati Culture During the Song Dynasty." DEStech
Transactions on Social Science, Education and Human Science mess (2017).
Qing, M.I.N.G. "How Chan Buddhism Became a Reinvented School by the Song
Dynasty." DEStech Transactions on Social Science, Education and Human Science ichss
(2017).
Rošker, Jana S. "Mindfulness and Its Absence–The Development of the Term Mindfulness
and the Meditation Techniques Connected to It from Daoist Classics to the Sinicized
Buddhism of the Chan School." Asian Studies 4, no. 2 (2016): 35-56.
Sharf, Robert H. "4 Buddhist Veda and the Rise of Chan." In Chinese and Tibetan Esoteric
Buddhism, pp. 85-120. BRILL, 2017.
Tang, Yijie. "Immanence and Transcendence in Chinese Chan Buddhism." In Confucianism,
Buddhism, Daoism, Christianity and Chinese Culture, pp. 87-100. Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg, 2015.
Wang, Y., 2017. Historical Dictionary of Chan Buddhism. Rowman & Littlefield.
Wang, Youru. "Philosophical Interpretations of Hongzhou Chan Buddhist Thought." In Dao
Companion to Chinese Buddhist Philosophy, pp. 369-398. Springer, Dordrecht, 2018.
Wang, Youru. Historical Dictionary of Chan Buddhism. Rowman & Littlefield, 2017.
Zhouxiang, Lu. A History of Shaolin: Buddhism, Kung Fu and Identity. Vol. 70. Routledge,
2019.