Theories, Principles and Models in Education and Training Report

This comprehensive report, prepared by a student, delves into the multifaceted realm of education, encompassing the analysis of diverse theories and models of learning, including behaviorism, cognitivism, and social constructivism, alongside the exploration of individual learner preferences through the VAK model. It meticulously examines various assessment types such as formative and summative assessments, and methods used to evaluate student progress, with examples illustrating their impact on inclusive learning. Furthermore, the report investigates curriculum development theories, notably those of Tyler, Taba, and Stenhouse, and their practical applications. It concludes with an exploration of reflective practice, detailing theories and models of reflection and evaluation, and providing a reflective account of how these can be applied to review and improve teaching practice. The report provides a holistic overview of core educational concepts, emphasizing the interconnectedness of theory and practice.

Running head: TEACHING AND EDUCATION
TEACHING AND EDUCATION
Name of the Student:
Name of the University:
Author Note:

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Table of Contents
Task 1.........................................................................................................................................2
Analysis of theories and models of learning..........................................................................2
Application of theories and models of learning.....................................................................5
Analysis of individual learner preferences.............................................................................7
Task 3.........................................................................................................................................8
Analysis of types and methods of assessment........................................................................8
Evaluation of assessment method from teaching practice...................................................10
Student assessment example................................................................................................14
Task 4.......................................................................................................................................16
Theories and models of curriculum development................................................................16
Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction - The Ralph Tyler theory and Model........17
Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice - The Hilda Taba theory and model.........18
Curriculum Research and Development – The Lawrence Stenhouse Theory and model....18
Linear and Spiral Curriculum models..................................................................................19
Application of theories and models......................................................................................19
Task 5.......................................................................................................................................23
Theories and models of reflection and evaluation...............................................................23
Application of reflection: a reflective account.....................................................................26
References................................................................................................................................30

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Task 1
A theory provides a generalized explanation for examinations which are made through
time about a specific topic. It helps in explaining and predicting behaviour in accordance to
those observations. But a theory is always tentative and a long standing theory which is
widely accepted can be later disproved or modified. A model on the other hand tends to focus
on applying these theories to situations which require learning.
Driscoll (1994) defines learning as “A persisting change in human performance or
performance potential brought about as a result of the learner’s interaction with the
environment” (pp. 8-9). Coffield (2008) defines teaching as “Teaching and learning are not
two distinct activities, but intertwined elements of a single, reciprocal process, or, if you like,
the two sides of one coin; perhaps they could be described as a double-sided, interactive
process which transforms both tutor and learner” (p. 8).
This section of the task is focussed on meeting three goals:
1. Analysing theories and models of learning
2. Applying these theories and models of learning
3. Analysing individual learner preferences.
Analysis of theories and models of learning
Teaching and learning are interwoven elements of a singular process and have several
theories related to them (Coffield 2008, p.8). They are:
1. Behaviourism:
Behaviourism refers to the psychological approach which places emphasis on a
scientific and objective approach to investigation (Skinner 1985). This approach is
mainly concerned with the response behaviour to stimuli which is observable and

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states that all behaviours are learned through interactions with the environment, to the
extent of almost excluding innate and inherited factors. The approach essentially
focuses on learning.
2. Cognitivism:
The psychological study of how individuals perceive, learn, remember and solve
problems by focussing on one stimulus at a time (Lawton et al. 1980). This approach
in teaching-learning is concerned with the understanding of how a learner evaluates a
particular lesson and remembers key aspects of that lesson while applying them to a
more practical field.
3. Social learning theory:
This theory postulates that individuals learn by observing the behaviour of other
individuals (Bandura & Walters 1977). It explains how people learn new behaviour,
attitudes and socio-cultural values based on their observation of others.
4. Social constructivism:
This theory is focussed on how sociocultural learning is facilitated through the social
and cultural interactions between individuals (Kalina & Powell 2009; Vygotsky
1977). Vygotsky argues that knowledge is constructed on a cooperative basis where
individuals learn from each other.
5. Multiple intelligences
This theory differentiates individuals into different modalities of intelligence rather
than observing them under a singular general intelligence (Gardner 1992). It is often
confused with learning styles. But this theory is different in the sense that it represents
intellectual abilities as different cognitive skills than the learners preference of a
learning style.

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6. Brain based learning
This is a more neuro-developmental theory which is concerned with the methods of
teaching, the lesson designs and the various programmes of the school that are based
and developed in accordance with the latest scientific findings about the learning
ability of brain (Cain & Cain 1995). It incorporates factors like cognitive
development, age factors, social, emotional and cognitive growth based on socio-
cultural aspects of upbringing.
7. Humanist theory:
It identifies humans as whole in the process of development and studies the person
rather than their specific abilities and skills (Simons, Irwin & Drinnien 1987; Maslow
1943). It postulates that all individuals are intrinsically motivated to learn something
new, that learning is defined by a hierarchy of requirements and should be reinforced.
There are several approaches corroborating with these theories. They are,
1. Procedural vs. declarative knowledge – how to accomplish something vs knowledge
about something
2. Skills development – development of pre-existing skills in a field.
3. Scaffolding learning – skills that a learner cannot develop on their own but can with
the help of others.
4. Knowing that/ knowing how – Knowing about something and knowing how that thing
works
5. Inductive vs. deductive approaches – observing a situation and formulating rules vs
applying those rules in a practical scenario for further development of skills.

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6. Situated approaches to learning – Effective education is ensured through embedded
learning (like engaging in complex tasks within social communities)
7. Competency based model – learners must demonstrate the ability to perform a
specific task with full competence than just display theoretical knowledge about the
task.
8. Constructivist approaches or Formal vs. non-formal learning – Institutionalised
learning system recognised by a governing authority vs learning under a competent
but unrecognised authority.
Application of theories and models of learning
Theories and models of learning can be applied in the teaching-learning field in a variety
of ways. Teaching and learning are interconnected processes that include a lot of feedback
response, lesson deployment, lesson understanding, testing and evaluation (Rogoff, Matsuov
& White 1996). Keeping these factors in mind, the following points elucidate how the
theories and models of teaching learning as a whole can be applied in teaching learning and
assessment.
1. Understanding the learner – This involves having a knowledge of what the learners
are like, what their specific preferences regarding learning are, what kind of a
background they are from and what their levels of understanding are (Schweisfurth
2013). Behaviourist and cognitivist theories are highly useful in this regard as they
provide detailed understanding of the aforementioned factors.
2. Curriculum development – This entails that the curriculum for education that is being
developed is all inclusive and incorporates elements of learning that will benefit every
single learner from the class (Milheim 2015). Social learning and social constructivist
theories serve as benefactors for this cause, as they allow for a deeper understanding

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of the socio-cultural idiosyncrasies of the class based on which curriculum plan can
be built.
3. Lesson planning and deployment – Most of the models of learning come into play at
once in this activity. Lesson plan designing requires understanding the two above
mentioned points but also include multiple intelligences and brain based learning
theories. Once the learners are identified, the lesson plan can be developed in a
manner that all learners would find it equally accessible.
Lesson plan deployment incorporates the first seven learning approaches as
mentioned above. A lesson plan structured with the seven approaches in mind ensures
that the learners are not left out in terms of any approach that would make them a
skilful individual in their respective fields (DeLuca 2013).
4. Evaluation and assessment – Evaluation and assessment encompasses considering that
the lesson plan has been effectively designed and applied. Multiple intelligences and
Brain based Learning theories that serve as a backend for the lesson development also
play significant roles here as they state how individuals with their differences in
cognitive capabilities incorporate a lesson in their mind and therefore are accordingly
assessed.
Analysis of individual learner preferences
Individual learner preferences refer to the learning styles that a learner identifies with.
The VAK model is a useful tool to assess what style a particular learner identifies the best
with.
The VAK model stands for Visual Auditory and Kinaesthetic model and it states that a
learner is familiar with either Visual inputs or Auditory inputs or Kinaesthetic
(tactile/physical) approaches in their styles of learning (Gholami & Bagheri 2013).

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Identifying individual learner needs serve as a base for the development of learning
modules, lesson plans, curriculum development, teaching and testing and evaluation (Swan &
Burkhardt 2014). The relevance of understanding learner preferences lie in the fact that
different learners accommodate a concept in their mind in different ways (Dörnyei 2014).
While some prefer texts, some prefer watching videos or listening to podcasts whereas some
prefer engaging physically with the lesson (if requirements suffice) (Ocepek et al. 2013;
Vaishnav & Chirayu 2013). These information can help develop the lesson structure
accordingly, provide the classes, test and evaluate while ensuring that no single learner is left
out imply because the requirements failed to meet their preferences (Vaishnav & Chirayu
2013; Cuevas 2015).

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Task 3
The term assessment stands for the number of various tools and methods which
educators use in order to evaluate, measure, and record the proficiency, progress, acquisition
of skills and educational needs of students in a formal or non-formal setting (Gronlund 1998).
Assessments are generally equated with traditional standardised tests which are developed by
companies who specialise in such tasks and are deployed to large population of students in
organizations. Educators use a wide range of assessment techniques and methods for
measuring group as well as individual performance of students ranging from kindergarten to
high school and above.
This section deals specifically with reaching three main targets as elicited below:
1. Analysis of types and methods of assessment.
2. Evaluation of assessment method
3. Evaluation of students’ assessment examples to show their effectiveness.
Analysis of types and methods of assessment.
There are several kinds of assessments which can be taken into account when speaking about
learning and teaching. They are,
1. Initial assessment: This is administered before students begin a lesson, course, or
academic program. This sort of assessment is generally used to establish a pipeline
against which educators measure progress through the duration of a program, course
or period of instruction. It could also be used to determine the general academic value
for a course, program or academic class that a student might be beginning. This is also
known as pre-assessment. It is most crucial in providing information which could

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decide the student’s benchmark from which his or her progress and achievement can
be measured. This sort of assessment also allows for finding out the expectations and
motivations that the learner possesses.
2. Diagnostic: This is a form of prior assessment method that allows a teacher to
specifically determine learners’ individual strengths, weaknesses, knowledge, and
skills prior to instruction. It is used diagnose an at-risk student’s difficulties and to
guide lesson and curriculum planning. This sort of assessment helps learners identify
specific issues that they might have and plan individual lesson plans concentrating on
those specific sections. Diagnostic assessments could be both formal and informal.
3. Formative assessment: This sort of assessment is an in-process evaluation of student
learning that are typically administered multiple times during a unit, course or
academic program. it takes place throughout the course or class (Harlen & James
1997). The general purpose of formative assessment is to give educators feedback
about what students are learning so that instructional approaches, teaching materials,
and academic support could be modified accordingly. This type of assessment is not
generally scored and they do not follow any particular structure. They could vary
from formal quizzes to informal questioning assignments and discussion in class.
Homework given in class is also a part of formative assessment.
4. Summative assessment: This kind of assessment refers to those which summarises the
development of the learners at the end of the concerned instructional period (Harlen &
James 1997). This contrasts formative assessments as it focuses on the outcome more
than the process. These include state assessment tests, end-of-term or semester exams.
These are generally graded exams, assignments or projects to determine whether the
students have learned as expected during the course period.

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There are quite a few different methods of assessment. They are:
1. Documents – using papers or digital submissions (Klenowski & Wyatt-Smith 2013)
2. Self –assessment – Assessment of self completed tasks (Boud 2013)
3. Discussion – conversational assessment (Falchikov 2013)
4. Assessment tools – the four types of assessment as mentioned above
5. Structured activities – Activities that follow a specific structure and organization.
6. Test – Examination based on the gathered knowledge (Boud 2013)
7. Observation – Observing how a learner goes through the entire process of learning.
Evaluation of assessment method.
The following is a student assessment form that we will be evaluating in this section
E – Exceptional, VG – Very Good, G – Good, S – Satisfactory, P – Poor, F - Fail
E VG G S P F
1. Learning Motivation/Attitude
a) Able to focus on a topic for a long period of time
b) Able to learn autonomously and independently
c) Sustained interest in certain subjects or issues
d) Persistent and refuse to give up when facing difficulties or failure
2. Learning Characteristics
a) Seek the “hows” and “whys” rather than taking them for granted
b) Able to understand concepts by intuition
c) Able to understand the logical relationship between similar concepts