An Analysis of Factors Affecting Drug Use Prevalence in the UK

This essay explores the multifaceted factors contributing to drug use prevalence in the UK. It delves into various reasons for substance abuse, including enjoyment, curiosity, self-medication, and rebellion, supported by studies from researchers like Boys, Marsden, and Strang. The essay examines the role of genetic dependency, environmental factors such as deprivation and unemployment, and peer pressure in influencing drug use. It also discusses the impact of cost and availability, alongside historical perspectives on drug usage, highlighting the use of psychoactive substances dating back to ancient times. The essay provides a comprehensive analysis of the complex interplay of factors that drive drug use within the UK population, offering insights into its prevalence and implications for public health and social care.

Running head: Health and social care management
FACTORS AFFECTING THE PREVLANCE OF DRUG USE IN THE UK
Name of the Student
Name of the University
Author Note

1Health and social care management
Introduction:
Drugs can be understood as any substance or agent which when enters the body can cause
temporary changes in the physiological or psychological state of the individual1. There are
different reasons why people use drugs, like for enjoyment, to cope up with their environment,
out of curiosity, as a form of self medication, as a form of defence mechanism, as a form of
rebellion, due to increased availability and promotion, popular media and peer pressure2. In this
essay, the different reasons why people in the UK have turned to drug and the factors promoting
such use will be discussed. Drug use in this aspect shall refer to the use of illicit or recreational
substances, and not medicine (disambiguation)3.
Reasons why people use drugs:
Studies by Boys, Marsden and Strang showed that 50% of youth between the age group
of 16 to 24 years have used drugs at some point in their lives, most of whom have used cannabis
(40%), followed by amphetamine (18%-24%), LSD (10%-13%), Ecstasy (8%-12%), cocaine
(3%-9%)4. The author’s points out that usage of multiple types of drugs (poly-drugs or multi-
drug) is not uncommon among the youth. This involves the usage of more than one psychoactive
substance to produce a simultaneous effect. Which the authors have termed as ‘concurrent drug
use’. Earlier studies have shown that users often take multiple drugs in order to enhance the
1 The Definition Of Drug' (Dictionary.com, 2018)
2 Why Do Young People Take Drugs?' (DrugWise, 2018)
3 Drugs & Medications' (Webmd.com, 2018) <https://www.webmd.com/drugs/2/alpha/a/> accessed 6 January 2018.
4 A. Boys, 'Understanding Reasons For Drug Use Amongst Young People: A Functional Perspective' (2001) 16
Health Education Research <https://academic.oup.com/her/article/16/4/457/558793> accessed 6 January 2018

2Health and social care management
effect of the other drug or to manage the adverse effect56. Many evidences show that rational
appraisal process is one of the factors why most youth decides to use drugs, instead of a passive
reaction to context, as pointed by Boys et al. (2000) and Wibberley and Price (2000)78. Boys,
Marsden and Strang highlights that the reasons of the drug use among the youth varies between
reasons like how the drugs makes the users feel good, to an increase in self confidence 9. Based
on how the drugs interacts with the body, and the changes it makes, drugs have been categorized
in to different types by different authors like Carman et al. (1979), Butler et al. (1981), Newcomb
et al. (1988), Cato (1992); McKay et al (1992). Such differences in the effects of different drugs
(like the effect of the different drugs on the nervous system) can reflect the different reasons why
people use drugs. Some use to drugs to increase nervous stimulation (excitant) or decrease the
stimulation (depressant).
Instrumental drug use has been found to be common among vehicle drivers to increase
their concentration and attention, and alleviate tiredness, as well as by people trying to lose
weight, since their usage reduces appetite. Sadava suggested that understanding the functions of
drugs is vital to realize how environmental and behavioural factors affect the patterns of drug
use10.
5 Robert Power, Tom PowerNigel Gibson, 'Attitudes And Experience Of Drug Use Amongst A Group Of London
Teenagers' (2009) 3 Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy
<http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3109/09687639609019312> accessed 6 January 2018
6 Christopher WibberleyJason Price, 'Patterns Of Psycho-Stimulant Drug Use Amongst ‘Social/Operational Users’:
Implications For Services' (2009) 8 Addiction Research
<http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3109/16066350009004412> accessed 6 January 2018
7 Annabel Boys and others, 'Drug Use Functions Predict Cocaine-Related Problems In Young People' (2000) 19
Drug and Alcohol Review <http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1080/713659316/full> accessed 6 January 2018
8 Christopher WibberleyJason Price, 'Patterns Of Psycho-Stimulant Drug Use Amongst ‘Social/Operational Users’:
Implications For Services' (2009) 8 Addiction Research
<http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3109/16066350009004412> accessed 6 January 2018
9 A. Boys, 'Understanding Reasons For Drug Use Amongst Young People: A Functional Perspective' (2001) 16
Health Education Research <https://academic.oup.com/her/article/16/4/457/558793> accessed 6 January 2018
10 Psycnet' (Psycnet.apa.org, 2018) <http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1975-20969-001> accessed 6 January 2018

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Discussed below are some of the factors influencing the prevalence of drug use in the
UK, based on other studies?
Enjoyment and Recreation:
Studies by Nesse and Berridge points out that a lot of people are attracted to drugs that
stimulate positive emotions, giving a false signal of fitness, utilizing the mechanism of ‘liking’ or
‘wanting’ to continue the usage of drugs in order to prolong the stimulated emotions11. Many of
such drugs targets the dopamine centres of the limbic and mesolimbic system, which are related
to regulation of motivation. The opioid receptors o the target neurons react to the drugs, thereby
activating the cells to release dopamine, the ‘feel good factor’ in the brain, which simulates the
feeling of pleasure or happiness. On the other hand, the drugs that block negative emotions like
anxiety, low mood, or even depression are used as a defence mechanism to cope up with
different stressors experienced by the user.
Genetic Dependency:
Studies by Kendler, Myers and Prescott suggests that genetic risk factors for substance
dependency on psychoactive drugs cannot be attributed by a single factor, and instead is due to
an interplay between both genetic and environmental factors12. Studies made on twins have
shown that the environmental and genetic risk factors were shared between the twins, showing a
common aetiology13. The studies also showed that individuals tend to have a genetic
11 Randolph NesseKent Berridge, 'Psychoactive Drug Use In Evolutionary Perspective, P63-65' (researchgate.net,
1997)
<https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Randolph_Nesse/publication/13910171_Psychoactive_Drug_Use_in_Evoluti
onary_Perspective/links/0912f511540ff95d9f000000.pdf> accessed 6 January 2018
12 Kenneth S. Kendler, John Myers, Carol A. Prescott, 'Specificity Of Genetic And Environmental Risk Factors For
Symptoms Of Cannabis, Cocaine, Alcohol, Caffeine, And Nicotine Dependence' (2007) 64 Archives of General
Psychiatry <https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/482486> accessed 6 January 2018
13 Ming T. Tsuang and others, 'Co-Occurrence Of Abuse Of Different Drugs In Men' (1998) 55 Archives of General
Psychiatry <https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/204442> accessed 6 January 2018

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predisposition to use alcohol, nicotine, caffeine apart from the illicit drugs. However the risk of
genetic predisposition is difficult to isolate from the environmental factors favouring the
predisposition, and hence is difficult to analyze individually. However, it has been pointed out
that the use of drugs spread due to an evolutionary advantage provided by the drugs, causing the
user to feel better, and hence develop a dependency on it.
Environment:
Several environmental factors like deprivation, unemployment, poor living conditions,
have negative impact on the psychological health of individuals, which causes an increase in
negative emotions like stress or depression. In such circumstances, the individuals opt for drug
use to manage the stresses they are exposed to, and alleviate their psychological well being.
Additionally, poor economy also results in the individuals indulging in small scale drug supply
in order to supplement their economic and social status14. Studies by Baumann et al. supports the
view that deprivation, lack of employment is related with a greater incidence of drug use among
individuals in the community 15. Sinha also points out that stress acts as a significant risk factor
that facilitates drug use as well as the vulnerability of a relapse among people who quit drugs16.
Chronic exposure to stress can increase self administration of drugs as well as drug seeking
behaviour. Such behaviour is linked to the effect of the drugs on the corticostriatal-limbic
motivational, learning, and adaptation systems, which involves mesolimbic dopamine, glutamate,
and gamma-amino-butyric acid (GABA) pathways. Mood and anxiety disorders caused due to
environmental factors or stressors, like post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can also increase
14 Why Do Young People Take Drugs?' (DrugWise, 2018) <http://www.drugwise.org.uk/why-do-young-people-
take-drugs/> accessed 6 January 2018
15 Baumann, Michèle, et al. "Associations of social and material deprivation with tobacco, alcohol, and psychotropic
drug use, and gender: a population-based study." International Journal of Health Geographics 6.1 (2007): 50.
16 Rajita Sinha, 'Chronic Stress, Drug Use, And Vulnerability To Addiction' (2008) 1141 Annals of the New York
Academy of Sciences <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2732004/?
wvsessionid=wv4b1a147bd7cc41909957c3aca905bba3> accessed 6 January 2018

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the propensity of drug use among people1718. Sinha points out different types of adverse events or
trauma that can act as stressors, that can predict the risk of addiction like: loss of parent, parental
divorce or conflict, isolation, single parent family stress, living away from family or parents, loss
of child, infidelity among married couple, loss of home due to accident or disaster, death of
spouse, victims of violence, observing violence or victimization, physical neglect, physical
abuse, emotional abuse, emotional neglect, sexual abuse, rape and poor emotional and
behavioural control19.
Figure 2: Model showing the inter relation between stress and drug use on behavioural and
neurological function, mediated by reward pathways. Column A shows 3 types of vulnerability
17 Denise B. Kandel and others, 'Psychiatric Disorders Associated With Substance Use Among Children And
Adolescents: Findings From The Methods For The Epidemiology Of Child And Adolescent Mental Disorders
(MECA) Study' (.springer.com, 2018) <https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023%2FA%3A1025779412167?
LI=true> accessed 6 January 2018
18 Philip L. Reed, James C. AnthonyNaomi Breslau, 'Incidence Of Drug Problems In Young Adults Exposed To
Trauma And Posttraumatic Stress Disorder' (jamanetwork.com, 2018)
<https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/482531> accessed 6 January 2018
19 Rajita Sinha, 'Chronic Stress, Drug Use, And Vulnerability To Addiction' (2008) 1141 Annals of the New York
Academy of Sciences <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2732004/?
wvsessionid=wv4b1a147bd7cc41909957c3aca905bba3> accessed 6 January 2018

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factors, Column B shows alteration in the neurobiological pathways that are related to the
regulation of stress, cognition and behaviour, and Column C shows the behaviour outcomes due
to the stress; source: (Sinha et al.20)
Figure 3: Diagram showing the relation between peak cravings and anxiety; source: (Sinha et
al.21.)
20 Rajita Sinha, 'Chronic Stress, Drug Use, And Vulnerability To Addiction' (2008) 1141 Annals of the New York
Academy of Sciences <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2732004/?
wvsessionid=wv4b1a147bd7cc41909957c3aca905bba3> accessed 6 January 2018
21 Rajita Sinha, 'Chronic Stress, Drug Use, And Vulnerability To Addiction' (2008) 1141 Annals of the New York
Academy of Sciences <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2732004/?
wvsessionid=wv4b1a147bd7cc41909957c3aca905bba3> accessed 6 January 2018

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Curiosity:
About two thirds of drug users have stated that they stared using drugs out of sheer
curiosity (69% of the drug users)22. Webb, Ashton and Kamali adds that ‘pleasure’ is the biggest
reason why students in school, colleges or universities use drugs. Also, anxiety, sleep difficulties,
can have significant stress effect, that might increase the propensity of drug use23. The authors
also point that lifestyle of the students are over to their later lives, and causes the continuation of
drug use among them. They found that a major part of smokers also used cannabis, showing a
high prevalence. Since curiosity is a very common human psychology, that enables individuals
to try new and different things, a curiosity towards the effects of the drugs plays an important
role especially in children who are easily impressed, and would think that trying it once won’t
cause any problems24. This allows individual a firsthand experience about the effects of the
substances, and can lead to dependency.
22 British Drugs Survey 2014: Drug Use Is Rising In The UK – But We're Not Addicted' (the Guardian, 2018)
<https://www.theguardian.com/society/2014/oct/05/-sp-drug-use-is-rising-in-the-uk-but-were-not-addicted>
accessed 6 January 2018
23 E Webb, CH AshtonF Kamali, 'Alcohol And Drug Use In UK University Students' (Maps.org, 2018)
<http://www.maps.org/images/pdf/1996_webb_1.pdf> accessed 6 January 2018
24 Curiosity And Addiction' (Addictionsearch.com, 2018)
<http://www.addictionsearch.com/treatment_articles/article/curiosity-and-addiction_243.html> accessed 6 January
2018

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Figure: Different reasons for drug use; source: (British Drugs Survey 201425)
Self Medication:
Several studies have shown that a lot of people take drugs as a form of self medication
for depression and mood disorders. Khantzian points out those individuals with drug use
problems, often self medicate with opiates in order to manage painful emotional states, providing
them short term benefits, which can cause dependence 26. Weiss et al. also pointed out that drug
users self medicate themselves to treat depression, and negative mood 27. Studies by Markou,
Kosten and Koob also indicate a relation between drug dependence and depression, both sharing
25 British Drugs Survey 2014: Drug Use Is Rising In The UK – But We're Not Addicted' (the Guardian, 2018)
<https://www.theguardian.com/society/2014/oct/05/-sp-drug-use-is-rising-in-the-uk-but-were-not-addicted>
accessed 6 January 2018.
26 Edward Khantzian, 'The Self-Medication Hypothesis Of Addictive Disorders: Focus On Heroin And Cocaine
Dependence' (researchgate.net, 2018) <https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Edward_Khantzian/publication/
19256427_The_self_medication_hypothesis_of_addictive_disorders_Focus_on_heroin_and_cocaine_dependence/
links/54ad98fb0cf24aca1c6f6792/The-self-medication-hypothesis-of-addictive-disorders-Focus-on-heroin-and-
cocaine-dependence.pdf> accessed 6 January 2018
27 Roger D. Weiss, Margaret L. GriffinSteven M. Mirin, 'Drug Abuse As Self-Medication For Depression: An
Empirical Study' (1992) 18 The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse
<http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3109/00952999208992825> accessed 6 January 2018

9Health and social care management
a common neurobiological pathway 28. Thus self medication provides the drug users a way of
managing the psychological conditions, and help them feel better.
Rebellion:
Among several people, drug use is related to an act of rebellion. Kohn and Mercer
suggests that students who considered themselves more rebellious tended to be more permissive
regarding drugs, especially cannabis, compared to peers who were more authoritarian29. Braucht
et al. hypothesized that drug usage among adolescents can be a form of group rebellion against a
sense of isolation or alienation from the mainstream culture and society 30.
Peer pressure:
Peer Cluster Theory suggests that the socialization factors associated with adolescents
interacts with each other to form peer clusters that can either encourage drug use or provide
sanctions against it31. The peer clusters can be a small cohesive unit that has huge effects on the
behaviour of children and adolescents. The authors suggests that social factors like socialization,
family strength, family sanctions, religious belief, adjustment with school can effect drug use by
affecting the peer clusters. Farrel and White points out that peer influence acts as the strongest
predictor of drug use among adolescents, apart from parental influences (drug use by parents).
Other factors like presence and quality of an affectionate and non conflicting parent, adolescent
28 Markou, Kosten Koob, 'Neurobiological Similarities In Depression And Drug Dependance: A Self Medication
Hypothesis' (Nature.com, 2018) <https://www.nature.com/articles/1380608.pdf?origin=ppub> accessed 6 January
2018
29 Paul KohnMercer, 'Drug Use, Drug-Use Attitudes, And The Authoritarianism-Rebellion Dimension On JSTOR'
(Jstor.org, 2018) <http://www.jstor.org/stable/2948519?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents> accessed 6 January 2018
30 Nicholas Braucht and others, 'Deviant Drug Use In Adolescence' (Citeseerx.ist.psu.edu, 2018)
<http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.741.1019&rep=rep1&type=pdf> accessed 6 January
2018
31 OettingFred, 'Psycnet' (Psycnet.apa.org, 2018) <http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1987-18441-001> accessed 6
January 2018

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relationships, parenting practices, conflict level in the family, degree of bonding between
children and parents can affect the propensity of drug use32.
Cost and availability:
Another factor that facilitates drug use is the cost and availability of certain drugs. Drugs
like cannabis are generally cheaper and more easily available in many places. This can be
correlated with the higher prevalence of using cannabis among people. Studies show that in the
UK use of marijuana is at 81% among drug users, compared to 28% for cocaine, 28% for
ecstasy, 22% for magic mushroom, 20% for Amphetamine, 19% for LSD, 10% for Mephedrone,
9% for Ketamine, 6% for Heroin and Crystal meth, 3% for Crack and 1% for steroids33.
Ancient history of the usage of drugs:
Studies have shown that the usage of psychoactive drugs dates back to ancient human
history. Evidences suggest usage of drugs derived from certain cacti during 8600 BC, and
cultivation of poppies for opium during 6000BC by the Neanderthals. Similarly, fermenting for
alcohol production started as early as 7000BC in China. Between 8600 to 5600 BC, ancient
Peruvians were using Echinopsis pachanoi (species of cactus) to extract mescaline. Evidences
from 13000 year old remains from Southern Philippines suggest the consumption of betel nut
leafs, and has also been found prevalent in most of Asia. Usage of Cannabis also dates back to
the Bronze Age in Turkmenistan, Romania around 2000BC. Usage of Nicotine was evidenced
32 FarrellWhite, 'Peer Influences And Drug Use Among Urban Adolescents: Family Structure And Parent-
Adolescent Relationship As Protective Factors' (2018)
<https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kamila_White/publication/292367956_Peer_influences_and_drug_use_amon
g_urban_adolescents_Family_structure_and_parent-adolescent_relationship_as_protective_factors/links/
56d9ce2908aee73df6cf63a0/Peer-influences-and-drug-use-among-urban-adolescents-Family-structure-and-parent-
adolescent-relationship-as-protective-factors.pdf> accessed 6 January 2018
33 British Drugs Survey 2014: Drug Use Is Rising In The UK – But We're Not Addicted' (the Guardian, 2018)
<https://www.theguardian.com/society/2014/oct/05/-sp-drug-use-is-rising-in-the-uk-but-were-not-addicted>
accessed 6 January 2018

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from hairs of mummies in South America, before the arrival of Europeans. The history of
smoking tobacco in pipes in North Americas dates back from 3000 to 2000 BC. Similarly, usage
of magick mushrooms dates back to the Neolithic and Bronze Age in Europe, Guatemala,
Mexico, Honduras and El Salvador. Many suggest that the usage of drugs in the ancient times
were mostly related to ceremonial rituals, rather than for recreational purposes34. The history of
drug usage probably started when ancient people started cultivating plants containing
psychoactive substances and fermented drinks to produce alcohol, and shows an almost
uninterrupted series of evidence through history, ever since 35.
Historians have pointed out that Alexander the great used to drink alcohol regularly, and
was also familiar with opium, which he introduced to Persia and India. Emperor Shennong of
China used marijuana to treat rheumatism and gout, and encouraged massive production for
medical usage as far back as 2700 BC. Marcus Aurelius of the Roman Empire used opium to
help his sleep, and took it regularly due to his health problems. The Greek Oracles of Delphi
inhaled certain fumes from Kerna springs, that seemed to have hallucinogenic properties, as well
as oleander leaves, that have psychoactive substances. Ramses the third of Egypt also smoked
marijuana for medicinal purposes, like curing eye sores36. Even Queen Elizabeth used marijuana
for medicinal purposes to relive menstrual cramps37
Prevalence of Drug Use in UK:
Statistics from Home Office Crime Survey for England and Wales 2015/16 shows that
8.4% of adults between ages 16-59 (about 2.7 million people) have taken drugs in the previous
34 Ancient humans took magic mushrooms and opium thousands of years ago (Gray, 2015)
35 Humans Have Been Getting High For A VERY Long Time' (Huffington Post India, 2015)
36 How Serious Was Drug Abuse In Ancient Times? - Ancient Facts' (Ancient Facts, 2018)
<http://www.ancientfacts.net/how-serious-was-drug-abuse-in-ancient-times/?view=all> accessed 15 January 2018.
37 BBC News | PANORAMA | History of Cannabis' (News.bbc.co.uk, 2018)
<http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/panorama/1632726.stm> accessed 15 January 2018.