Female Genital Mutilation: A Debate on Culture vs. Human Rights

This essay delves into the multifaceted debate surrounding Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), examining its cultural roots, ethical implications, and legal ramifications. It explores the practice across various African, Asian, and Middle Eastern communities, highlighting the health risks and human rights concerns associated with FGM. The essay further analyzes religious justifications, particularly within Islamic, Christian, and Jewish contexts, while emphasizing the absence of explicit religious mandates for the practice. It contrasts cultural relativism with universal human rights, questioning the legitimacy of FGM in light of Western ethical standards and women's health. Ultimately, the essay underscores the importance of upholding women's rights and health while navigating the complexities of cultural traditions, inviting readers to explore this controversial issue further on Desklib, where they can find additional resources and solved assignments.

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A DEBATE ON FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION
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Introduction
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), female circumcision, infibulation or female genital cutting,
are all words that denote to the prehistoric exercise of taking away all or a part of the female
peripheral genitalia (Parker 2010, p. 506). It is exercised in many African states, Asia, the
Middle East and also in refugee societies where supporters of participating groups live. This
practice is commonly performed on females between birth and 15 years of age. However, for
some communities it is practiced when the female is just about to get married, whereas others get
it done after bearing the first child. There are four types of FGM (Westcott 2015, p. 50). FGM is
usually performed in a sacred manner and it is upheld as a way of upholding a female’s
wholesomeness, decorum and loveliness. There are no recognized health benefits of this practice.
FGM can lead to both short-term and long-term health complications including infections,
problems with urination or menstruation flow, prolonged discomfort, trouble conceiving, mental
anguish, problematical deliveries and even passing away. Even though many governments have
voted for decrees against the practice and several NGOs have issued statements criticizing the
procedures, they continue to be executed.
FGM is a cruel and outdated sacramental. It has also been characterized as cruelty and a mode of
oppression of females. The ethical values that motivate the oppositions to FGM are
independence, generosity and non-maleficence. One may debate that cultural concerns outweigh
the principles of current health bioethics, as health consultants are hardly involved in the
dealings. More important, maybe, is the bigger question of human rights, precisely, a lady’s right
to assent and independence. These are the foundations of anti-FGM direct action. Eventually, it
must come down to the concept of upholding females’ health. The lawful limitations on FGM

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rise from concerns for the long-standing impacts of FGM on a female’s general health and worth
of life.
The kinds of FGM ways differs not only through states, but also inside states, through cultural
sets and inside ethnic groups. The World Health Organization (WHO) categorizes the
modification of the genitalia of feminine newborns, kids, youths and grown-ups into four kinds
(Khaja, Lay, and Boys 2010, p. 687). The first category denotes to the fractional or complete
abstraction of the clitoris and, in very exceptional circumstances, only the prepuce. The second
type mentions the fractional or complete abstraction of the clitoris and the labia minor, with or
minus removal of the labia major. The third category brings up the stitching/tightening of the
vaginal entrance done by the formation of a casing cover. The fourth type refers to all additional
actions used to modify the female genitalia for reasons that are non-medical for example;
incising, pricking, cauterizing, piercing, and scraping and the genital part.
In understanding of the jeopardies and risky concerns that cultures in which FGM is customary
known to be linked with and often openly due to the exercise, its persistent approval and even
necessity raises the ethical demand of why the exercise continues (Kristina 2012, P. 69). One
justification is religiosity, ever since the exercise has traditionally been shadowed out of a logic
of sincere obligation in Islamic, Christian and Jewish societies, even though nothing in the holy
scripts or canons of these religions dictates it, not like male circumcision in Islam and Judaism.
One more justification is the cultural necessity of female cleanliness, shown in the virginity of
wives-to-be and loyalty of wives. A clan’s women are the center and symbol of its honor, so that
means women are custodians of their kin’s asset. Women’s sexual initiative, or their sexual
defilement, deprives their folks of honor, rank and admiration in their societies (Gruenbaum
2015, P. 427). The persistence of FGM, particularly Types II and III, is to decrease the feminine

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energy for sexual fulfilment, and decrease their exposure to rape. This account mirrors gender
labeling, which boosts males’ statuses if they are sexually exploratory, but denounces females
for sexual arrogance or being sexually provoking or investigational. This account fits into a
broader outline of male aggression to women showing or humoring their sexuality. In the second
half of the 19th century in Europe, as well as the United States and in the United Kingdom,
reproductive specialists executed many clitoridectomies, on what were said to be health signs for
disorders linked to sexual syndrome, like hysterics, melancholia, epilepsy, the psychiatric
syndrome of nymphomania, and the psycho-social syndrome of pursuing or originating desire
from sex. By this description, FGM seems to be an extension of a past of social monitoring of
female sexuality, a characteristic of numerous customary cultures of several sacred beliefs.
Reliably with this reason, the exercise has been perceived to drop amongst daughters of
metropolitan, sophisticated females, and, for illustration, amongst Ibo misses in Nigeria, mostly
accredited to the increasing percentage of females’ formal education.
Religious fitting is one part to the mosaic that creates cultural and individual personality
(Gruenbaum 2011). There are numerous religious accounts used to overlook the exercise,
precisely those from Prehistoric or Customary, Islamic, and Judeo-Christian beliefs. It will claim
that culture and religion are characteristically entangled and that both need to be deliberated in a
debate of customs and social rules. FGM, which is every so often regarded as a cruel exercise by
most western countries, is a cultural custom stemming from years of social concept in Africa and
the Middle East. This custom tells a specific cultural distinctiveness. This distinctiveness has
been persistent in both pre-colonial and postcolonial eras. It cannot be merely laid off according
to Westocott (2015). The roots of FGM exist before the Quran and the Bible by thousands of
ages. Most persons point the exercise of FGM to Islam. Yet there are several Muslim people that

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are conflicting to the exercise. Amongst the explanations in the Islamic belief, there are two
common subjects. The major one is the narrative of Abraham’s spouse Sarah, and her employee
Hagar. Sarah was incapable of bearing Abraham a lad, and presented him Hagar to give him
offspring as a replacement for her. Hagar gave birth to Abraham’s first-born lad, called Ishmael.
Abraham fell in love with Hagar overtime. Sarah, overwhelmed with possessiveness, endangered
to hurt Hagar by wounding her. Abraham pleaded with her to only puncture her ears and
circumcise her. Conferring to Islamic custom, when God grasped what Sarah and Abraham had
done, he commanded them to also circumcise themselves. The other key subject of FGM
explanation in Islam derives from the Prophet Muhammad’s guidance to Um-Habibah – a lady
well known for her occupation as a circumciser. The Prophet questioned her if she still
accomplished her occupation, to which she answered that she did and that she would carry on,
lest it was prohibited. The Prophet stated that it was acceptable, but he requested her not to
“overdo it” for the sake of the females. Advocates for FGM interpret this as a authorizing of the
exercise by the Prophet, whereas others feel that he was meaning to make a widespread social
tradition warmer and not as much of offensive to females’ health -with the intention of
terminating it over time. Although FGC is not mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, it was practiced
among some Jews in Egypt before Christ.
Male circumcision has a significant role in the Jewish belief, originating from the narrative of
Abraham (Kristina 2012, P. 78). In the Hebrew Bible conversely, his spouse Sarai is only
commanded to change her forename to Sarah. No comment is stated of her cutting. Like
Judaism, the Christian Bible has no discussion of FGM. Defined as one of the religions utmost
conflicting to FGM, however, this exercise can still be found amongst certain Christians. One
explanation for FGM in the Christian belief is resulting from the narrative of the Virgin Mary.

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Several societies consider that a female’s virginity can only be discovered if she has been cut. It
is claimed that this is the single approach the Virgin Mary’s virginity was established as
unbroken, and her kinfolk’s status reclaimed in light of her being a spinster lady. This would
then authorize that she unbelievably gave birth the son of God. Certain Christians consider this
as a perfect bearing to exercise FGM. It can be reasoned that not any of these religions are
offered with a strong directive to exercise FGM, and yet there are situations where each makes it
legitimate. This captivating unity can only be accredited to the creation of custom and cultural
rules. Religions revolution and growth into the beliefs inside which they exist, just as beliefs and
social customs move to consist of overriding religions. Jews performing FGM in Ancient Egypt
is a faultless instance of culture edging religious performs. Investigation on the backgrounds of
FGM prove that Egyptian tradition has a pronounced deal to do with the exercise. The Jewish
belief and the Egyptian exercise of FGM were both customs that turn out to be significant to the
lives and individualities of certain Jews as they travelled from Egypt through the world.
Comparable outcomes are seen with all these religious accounts. Hitherto at the same time,
others of the identical religions through the world are severely divergent to the practice.
Ritual modification of the genitalia of female babies, kids, teenagers and grown-ups has been a
customary exercise in many cultures since ancient times (Kristina 2012, P. 78). These practices
have been recognized in at least 26 nations in and nearby the Sub-Saharan Africa. Exercised
since the period of the emperors, FGM has been recognized in a variety of community
collections from several beliefs, including but not restricted to Catholics, Animists, Muslims,
Jews, Protestants, and those lacking religious opinions. Having identified that, it is significant to
note that, conflicting to common faith, the major inspirations for these practices are every so
often more attached to cultural ethics than verbalized by religious principles.

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Cultural relativism is a word used for the conviction that every single culture ought to be
comprehended from the opinion of understanding of one’s individual culture, rather than judged
contrary to the standards of it. Wagner (2015) denotes that cultural relativism has in history
played a primary role in affairs concerning colonizing kingdoms and the colonized remnants of
the world. It was assumed to be eliminated with the close of colonization. In current eras, it still
occurs, though maybe its existence is measured in extra intelligent means. Western standards of
ethics and dignity have long controlled the mass media, fashion business, and geo-politics
(Obiora 2011, p. 68). Ethics of Western independence, free enterprise, and secularism are
pronounced as permanent realities by the West. Style and marketing is controlled by Western
magnificence ethics, an occurrence that points to Western values of self-esteem, mostly for
females. This tendency generates a story where non-whites are seen as being unusual and
strange. This approach, embraced in several methods, lingers in indirect accounts of racial
discrimination, cultural belief, and universal good looks ethics. The conception of a ‘norm’ for
ethics and practices certainly generates an unusual ‘other’ to which this custom is likened.
‘Culture’ appears to suggest ‘additional culture’, while the West is observed as culture-free, for
the reason that it is the custom. This was referred to Orientalism by Edward Said. He claimed
that a continuing feature of this scheme is that the ‘other’ is at all times supported and measured
the wrong way, far-off, and characteristic of all that the impressive culture desires not to be. This
continuing account of affairs amongst the ‘West versus the rest’ produces an extra level of
difficulty when looking at the legitimacy of the exercise of FGM.
In her article, “What is This Thing about Female Circumcision” (1998), Kate Lim, seek out to
comprehend why FGM has turned out to be a major instance in the Western deliberation over
worldwide human rights (Rossem, Meekers, and Gage 2011, p. 45). She claims that FGM is

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recognized as a cruel exercise deprived of any validation by 7 Western beliefs. It is perceived as
one particular method of cruelty, inside one culture, performed on one eternal casualty. Here yet
again we get the ‘solo story’ tale since this casualty is the most troubled, intimidated, malformed,
and misery of us all: The Black African Woman. Also, Lim claims, this also carries on the
Western allegory of the ‘Exotic Female Other’- the sexually yearning and readily-available black
African female Shell-Duncan (Shell-Duncan 2018). Lim debates that, for a number of people,
FGM is a central feature of self-worth and religious honor, and an important gendered
‘belonging’ to an individual’s society. For the reason of this identification with a society,
daunting Western views on what is proper for any females’ physiques and sexuality is a shallow
and indifferent way out to a difficult problem. As an alternative, Lim proposes that current
exercises and philosophies need to be changed to guarantee the well-being and independence of
the females involved. Comprehending the difficult community and cultural implication of FGM
could be a foundation to fashioning a new tale for intercultural appreciative and education.
Inside many male-controlled; patriarchal cultures, the practice of FGM is proposed to guarantee
regulation of womanly sexuality, chastity and the integrity of the society (Accar 2015).
Nevertheless, FGM practices embrace various extra cultural significances but not restricted to
the safeguarding of group individuality (Ratliff and Hill 2016, p. 90). For instance, a ritual of
passage guaranteeing social evolution from one grade level to one more; safeguarding of
virginity and clan honor; and the promoting of matrimonial objectives, and comprising of the
enrichment of sexual desire for men are often of concern. Although cultural implications related
with the exercise are varied, it is evident that FGM practices are every so often regarded as a
social moral, important in the socialization of girls. However, this is not the case at all since there
are numerous other ways of socialization rather than FGM.

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The socio-cultural background ought to be deliberated on to guarantee the decreasing of injury in
connection to schemes of attention, mainly to stop gendered stigmatization of the individuals
who are affected (Beller and Kröger 2018, p. 6). Community and health care specialists will have
to reinforce their exercise to grasp the right sense of balance in respects to their lawful duties
together with with their central duty to deliver just and considerate care to all.
Given the confirmation of bodily injury produced by FGM, Crosse and Goodwin (2016) denote
that a selection of responses from involved societies point to the prospective of social
segregation and sidelining of women (amongst other socio-cultural concerns) that possibly will
effect when misses or females are not circumcised or infibulated, possibly bringing more
maltreatment. Although the medico-physical concerns of FGM are more and more acknowledged
in global works, Gootnick (2016) assert that the difficult nature of the socio-cultural effects
connected with these observes or absence thereof necessitate additional debate, particularly when
attached inside the complicated course of incorporation into a different social order.
Understanding ‘harm’ connected to FGM could seem like obvious to a Western audience
(Bellemare, Novak, and Steinmetz 2015, p. 9). In a majority of FGM performing societies,
‘harm’ is intensely attached to cultural customs labelled by several females, mainly seniors, that
a female's life is inseparably connected to misery. In cultures where giving birth and observes
such as FGM happen minus general anesthetic, persistent pain and misery is
anticipated. However it is not in the women’s’ position to complain or even talk about it. This is
indeed very sad and devastating.
The World Health Organization (WHO) estimations allude that there are approximately 200
million females from a minimum of 30 states who have gone through FGM in a certain form

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(Bradshaw 2013, p. 89). The UN and WHO similarly confirm that females in these societies
desire to end the exercise of FGM. James Stephen looks at the account of deep-seated unfairness
amongst the genders that gave birth to this exercise (Cloward 2014). FGM is linked with ethics
of feminineness and decorum, where females are only spotless and attractive after the subtraction
of body fragments that are measured as being male (Gruenbaum 2015). Stephen likens this
exercise to the elimination of physique hair in the West as a custom of cultural loveliness. While
debating only the trivial practices of FGM-that is, those which do not distress a female’s sexual
or procreative well-being- he defies the Western mode of thought that instills this culture of the
‘other’ (Bishop 2014). He clearly states out that the exercise of FGM has been held in reserve by
schemes of gendered discrimination, as well as situations of lack, underdevelopment, and
reliance. Pooled together with native dialogues of morality, honor, and society adjoining
religious fitting, FGM has the possibility of becoming a sign of persecution as much as a
representation of unity and fitting (Hellsten 2010).
In conclusion, FGM in all of its forms is a very barbaric act and in no circumstances whatsoever
should it be upheld for its consequences are dire. Everyone has to stand up and raise voice
against this ill-fated practice. We all need to save our women from the pain, misery and
discomfort instigated by the act of FGM. Governments, NGO’s, women empowerment
movements, and every other individual need to advocate for the eradication of this ancient
practice.

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List of References
Accad, E. (2015) ‘Excision: Practices, discourses and feminist commitment’, Feminist
Issues, 13(2), pp. 47–68. doi: 10.1007/BF02685734.
Bellemare, M. F., Novak, L. and Steinmetz, T. L. (2015) ‘All in the family: Explaining the
persistence of female genital cutting in West Africa’, Journal of Development Economics,
116, pp. 252–265. doi: 10.1016/j.jdeveco.2015.06.001.
Beller, J. and Kröger, C. (2018) ‘Differential effects from aspects of religion on female
genital mutilation/cutting’, Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. doi: 10.1037/rel0000177.
Bishop, J. P. (2014) ‘Modern Liberalism, Female Circumcision, and the Rationality of
Traditions’, Journal of Medicine & Philosophy, 29(4), pp. 473–497. doi:
10.1080/03605310490503560.
Bradshaw, K. (2013) ‘A Discursive Approach to Female Circumcision: Why the United
Nations Should Drop the One-Sided Conversation in Favor of the Vagina Dialogues’, North
Carolina Journal of International Law & Commercial Regulation, 38(2), pp. 601–649.
Available at: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
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Cloward, K. (2014) ‘False Commitments: Local Misrepresentation and the International
Norms Against Female Genital Mutilation and Early Marriage’, International Organization,
68(3), pp. 495–526. doi: 10.1017/S0020818314000022.

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Cloward, K. (2015) ‘Elites, Exit Options, and Social Barriers to Norm Change: The Complex
Case of Female Genital Mutilation’, Studies in Comparative International Development,
50(3), pp. 378–407. doi: 10.1007/s12116-015-9175-5.
Crosse, M. and Goodwin, G. L. (2016) ‘Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting Existing Federal
Efforts to Increase Awareness Should Be Improved’, GAO Reports, pp. 1–67. Available at:
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Gootnick, D. (2016) ‘Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting’, GAO Reports, pp. 1–39. Available
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Gruenbaum, E. (2015) ‘Socio‐cultural dynamics of female genital cutting: Research findings,
gaps, and directions’, Culture, Health & Sexuality, 7(5), pp. 429–441. doi:
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Hellsten, S. K. (2010) ‘Women’s Rights and Reproductive Health Care in a Global
Perspective’, Journal of Social Philosophy, 31(4), pp. 382–390. Available at:
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(Accessed: 15 March 2019).
Hellsten, Sirkku Kristiina and Hellsten, Sirkku Kristina (1999) ‘Pluralism in Multicultural
Liberal Democracy and the Justification of Female Circumcision’, Journal of Applied

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Philosophy, 16(1), p. 69. Available at: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
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Khaja, K., Lay, K. and BOYS, S. (2010) ‘Female Circumcision: Toward an Inclusive
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campaign against female..’, Case Western Reserve Law Review, 47(2), p. 275. Available at:
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Parker, M. (2010) ‘Rethinking Female Circumcision’, Africa (Edinburgh University Press),
65(4), p. 506. doi: 10.2307/1161130.
Ratliff, P. S. and Hill, L. R. (2016) ‘The Depiction of Female Circumcision in Selected
Memoirs by Female African Writers and Novels by Female African American
Writers’, Journal of Intercultural Disciplines, 15, pp. 55–67. Available at:
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live (Accessed: 15 March 2019).
Rossem, R. V., Meekers, D. and Gage, A. J. (2015) ‘Women’s position and attitudes towards
female genital mutilation in Egypt: A secondary analysis of the Egypt demographic and
health surveys, 1995-2014’, BMC Public Health, 15(1), pp. 1–13. doi: 10.1186/s12889-015-
2203-6.

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Shell-Duncan, B. (2018) ‘The role of older women in contesting norms associated with
female genital mutilation/cutting in Senegambia: A factorial focus group analysis’, PLoS
ONE, 13(7), pp. 1–19. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0199217.
Wagner, N. (2015) ‘Female Genital Cutting and Long-Term Health Consequences –
Nationally Representative Estimates across 13 Countries’, Journal of Development Studies,
51(3), pp. 226–246. doi: 10.1080/00220388.2014.976620.
Westcott, L. (2015) ‘The Quiet Mutilation’, Newsweek Global, 164(12), pp. 50–53. Available
at: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
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