Sports Coaching: A Comparison of Fitts & Posner and Welford Models

This paper examines Fitts and Posner's three stages of learning model and Welford's model of information processing theory, both crucial for sports coaching, particularly in goalkeeper training. The Fitts and Posner model outlines cognitive, associative, and autonomous stages of skill acquisition, illustrated with examples like saving penalty kicks. The Welford model focuses on how the brain processes information during skill performance, emphasizing sensory input, perception, short-term memory, decision-making, and effector control. Both models provide insights into how learners progress and how coaches can optimize training by understanding these cognitive and motor processes. The paper concludes that the Fitts and Posner model is essential for the initial stages of learning, while Welford's model explains the brain's role in processing information for effective action.

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Table of Contents
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................2
Fitts and Posner’s model three stages of learning along with examples......................................................2
Welford’s model of information processing theory.....................................................................................4
Conclusion...................................................................................................................................................6
Reference.....................................................................................................................................................7

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Introduction
The paper will reflect upon the two models that are the Fitts and Posner’s model three stages of
learning and Welford’s model of information processing theory. Both the model highly helps the
learner and the goalkeeper to learn various processes of the game. Moreover, it will describe the
different stages of learning that is vital for the learner. It will discuss the facts of how the brain
helps in controlling our movements that will help in catching the ball coming toward the
goalkeeper. The stages will be discussed with the help of examples that will help in learning how
to save a penalty kick.
Fitts and Posner’s model three stages of learning along with examples
It was suggested by Fitts and Posner that the development of novice to expert could be modeling
by utilizing the concept of information processing. The model presents the three stages of skill
learning that eventually helps the coaches to acknowledge the position of the athletes at what
stage of learning they are at and accordingly structure the practice (Tenison, Fincham &
Anderson, 2016). The model of Fitts and Posner’s recognizes the three stages or phases of
learning. They are as follows:
1. Cognitive (early) phase
2. Associative (intermediate) stage
3. Autonomous (final) stage

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Figure: Fitts and Posner's Three-Stage Model of Learning
(Source: Chapter 5 Stages of Learning. - ppt video online download. 2018)
Now we will discuss in detail all the three stages of learning along with appropriate examples.
1. Cognitive (early) stage
The learner always tries hard to acquire the grips in relation with the activity that takes place in
nature which is learned. Demonstrations are significant, as it will not only provide with the
visual aid but also with the verbal explanation. Both these factors help the learner to know what
to do and highlight the important sections. In the pre-practice stage problem-solving plays an
important role (Coker, 2017). After giving the demonstration the learner than tries to recall all
the memories in a sequential order of movements that help the learner to verbalize the important
points that are being learned. For example in the quarterfinal match against England the
goalkeeper of the Portugal national team Ricardo, where out of four he saved three penalties. It is
important to note that providing excessive information or feedback could result in overburden
and this could be harmful to the learners. It is because they have to observe the movements
deeply with the help of a visual aid. Hence they must not be overloaded with too much
information. If the learner is in this particular stage, then it becomes significant to provide the
learner with the specific feedback every time. This will help the learner to practice according to
the instructions given (Christensen, Sutton & McIlwain, 2016). The performance of the learner

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throughout this stage will be full of errors, and their movements to be performed will lack
fluency and inconsistent.
2. Associative (intermediate) stage
At this particular stage, the learner understands the basic skills and moves towards the process of
refining the skills. They found few errors and could identify some of them on their own. During
this stage, the performance of the learners are found to be consistent, and they get to know that
what is appropriate and what is not. In this stage, the learner refines what is required to acquire
the goal of the skill based on the situation. They also begin to acknowledge to diversify the
responses for the open skills (Bobrownicki, MacPherson, Coleman, Collins & Sproule, 2015).
For example, with the help of the gazette trackers, the goalkeepers give a response to the video
footage of the penalty kicks without making a jump or dive that will help in saving a penalty
kick. Another example Jens Lehman a German goalkeeper whose big cheat sheet directed him to
know the position where there the players are most likely to kick and how much time he should
wait before beginning the dive to save the penalty kick.
3. Autonomous (final) stage
This is the final or the last stage of learning, where the skills are learned well. Automatically the
learner performs the skills without focusing on the operations. There are fewer errors, and the
learners could identify them to make them appropriate. They could highly focus upon the other
factors of the sports. The transition of the learners from learning the goal of the skill in correcting
it, coaches could practice conditions and diversify instructions (Archer, Drysdale & Bradley,
2016). In the closed skills to match the conditions of the competition, it is important to practice
the structure. Whereas. In open skills, the coach should vary the conditions systematically as per
the skill is learned and performed for the preparation for the competition. For example, the best
goalkeeper will be able to recognize the holdings of a shot for the opponent team for a long
period. This helps the goalkeeper to analyze the incoming ball and respond appropriately.
Welford’s model of information processing theory
Information processing concentrates on how the body and the brain deal with the excess amount
of information that is received at the time of performance of the skills. It is particularly related to
the motor and the movement skills. Welford's model presents the fact that the response will

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generate various changes in the display (Hargie, 2018). This particular model utilizes the concept
of attention, perception, and memory. All these concepts play a significant role in systematically
developing the learning process.
The Welford's information processing model demonstrates the process of learning that is because
of effectors and the effector control, long-term memory, decision making, short-term memory,
perception, and sensory input.
Figure: Welford's information processing model
(Source: Riley, Riley & profile, 2013)
At the stage of sensory input, the brain describes the source of information around the goalkeeper
that possess different stimuli’s. This could be done by viewing the information using the visual
senses, or it could be provided to the goalkeeper in the form of auditory senses or proprioceptors.
At the stage of perception, the information is just being received by the goalkeeper from the
senses, and the brain is putting efforts to convert that information in a relevant form that is
perfect for the goalkeeper to eliminate the inappropriate information (Steelman, McCarley &
Wickens, 2017). After this process, the relevant information is transferred to the short-term
memory that helps the goalkeeper to save the penalty kick.
At the stage of short-term memory, every information filtered out by the perception is stored
briefly in the short term memory. Here the goalkeeper could distinguish the information with its
earlier experiences of the skill that is stored in the long-term memory. This comparison will
guide the goalkeeper by providing various methods to save the penalty kick. Thus, storing the
information in the short-term memory plays a significant role in saving the penalty kick.

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At the stage of decision making based on the information, the motor cortex will generate a motor
plan that has been gathered by the goalkeeper from the long-term and short-term memory. After
the completion of this process, the motor plan is being saved in the long-term memory (Kievit,
Davis, Griffiths, Correia & Henson, 2016). Storing the information in the long-term memory
supports the goalkeeper to learn new processes and make appropriate decisions to save the
penalty kick. To determine a relevant action is to be taken to catch the ball it recalls the previous
experiences that are held in the long-term memory.
At the stage of the effector control stage, the motor plan that is created by the motor cortex is
transferred to the required muscles of the goalkeeper. The signals will be transferred to the
muscles in the goalkeeper’s hands and legs (Schroots, 2018). For example a catching a ball that
is coming towards the goalkeeper. Hence, the signals that are sent to the muscles will help the
goalkeeper to catch the ball that is coming towards him to save the penalty kick.
The last stage is the stage of effector, and during this particular stage, a signal to contract is sent
to the muscles of the goalkeeper to produce a specific action that is relevant. This signal to a
contract will guide the goalkeeper to focus towards the ball coming towards him and catch it to
save a penalty kick. To do this, it is important for the goalkeeper to stay calm and focus towards
achieving the target (Cohen & Quinlan, 2016).All the stages discussed above will highly help the
goalkeeper in processing the incoming message and produce an effective response to save a
penalty kick.
Conclusion
The paper concludes by describing the Fitts and Posner’s model three stages of learning and the
Welford’s model of information processing theory that guides the goalkeeper to save the penalty
kick. It different stages of both the models along with the examples are discussed that guides the
learner and the goalkeeper to catch the ball that will help in saving the penalty kick. It is
observed that Fitts and Posner’s model three stages of learning are an initial stage of the learning
process that is important for the learner. Whereas, the Welford’s model of information
processing theory provides with the signals that are sent to the brain to get the incoming message
to take the proper action.

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Reference
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