Foundation Management: Evolution of Management Theories and Practices

This essay provides a comprehensive overview of the evolution of management theories, beginning with scientific management and progressing through human relations and modern management approaches. It explores the principles of scientific management, emphasizing standardization and e...Read More

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FOUNDATION MANAGEMENT
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FOUNDATION MANAGEMENT
Introduction
Scientific management is defined as a process through which maximum efficiency is
realized through normalizing tasks by segregating work into small pieces. The concept of
scientific management approach aimed to improve labor productivity by following certain
principles. It was developed by Frederick Taylor towards the end of 19th century. Human
relations approach on the other hand, was developed later and focuses more on achieving goals
through improved relationships, recognition and motivation of workers themselves. Modern
management theory tries to revise and refine its predecessors in attempt to unify them. Although
the basic principles in scientific management theories remain relevant even in modern
management approach, there are some key aspects that completely differ. Contrary to scientific
management approach, modern management approach stipulates that no one best way of doing
this will apply for all situations.
Discussion
Scientific management
This was developed during industrial revolution when large scale factories were created.
The solution to management problems, made by Frederick Taylor by developing scientific theory
of management, has greatly contributed to the current management practice. It has contributed in
solving management problems like organizational inefficiencies, safety issues, supervision,
conflict and industrial unrest. Scientific management was characterized by what Taylor referred
to as principles of scientific management. From these principles, work is standardized based on
measurements and formulae where workers are matched to tasks with respect to their skills

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(Shaw, 2017). Coordination of activities and separation of planning and execution are
emphasized. The principles are based on science, which is the tool used in formulation of
procedures to ensure cooperation as opposed to individualism, maximum output instead of
restricted output and development of human resources to achieve highest efficiency and
prosperity. Contribution of this approach to work is evident in organization of labor such that
work is not based on technical superiority but instead focuses on division of labor then
integration of tasks to achieve a common goal. Management uses this science to integrate
methods, policies, planning and people to achieve objectives. “Taylorism” has led to
differentiation of skilled and unskilled labor, improved productivity and reduced craft based
work. Today, it is used in manufacturing and in mass production. Division of labor still forms the
basis of work organization. Human resource managers are still concerned in fostering
cooperation. Limitations associated with this approach are that it resulted to repetitions that bring
about boredom and promotes deskilling.
Human Relations Movement
Human relation school portrays organizations as system of interdependent human
resources. Mary parker added a measurement of human aspect to the study of organizations.
Chester Barnard’s theory views organizations as systems of coordinated human activities
(Feldman & Worline, 2016). This study emphasizes on understanding human behavior such as
motivations rather than economic factors. This is because employees are found to be social as
opposed to economic beings. Work should be viewed as group activity since groups exert strong
impacts over individuals. Social factors help productivity to increase, therefore employees’
performance can be improved by cultivating good relations and trust between managers and
workers. Informal work groups are found to influence performance as was observed in

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“Hawthorne effect”. Cooperation is an important aspect of productivity and this is connected to
the importance of interpersonal skills among managers, who should as well have skills in
controlling and planning (Loonam, 2014). Such human factors lead motivation based
productivity, job satisfaction and cooperation between workers and their supervisors. Attention
paid to the role of leadership and supervisory development, motivation and harmony at place of
work are key things that can be used to gauge productivity in this perspective. On the other hand,
conflict between needs of human workers and those of management of organizations demotivates
employees.
Modern Management Theory and Practice
Modern period with regard to management theory is recent period starting from 1960 to
present. This has drifted from extreme human relations thinking about morale and productivity
(Robledo, 2016). Modern management wants equal emphasis on machine and human workforce.
Principles of management, which are key features of scientific management, reached a point
which marked the beginning of modern approaches to management where they needed to be
revised and refined in attempt to reach perfection. A new approach that needed to unify different
approaches and inclusive of emerging needs was develop and became what is known as modern
management theory. This approach of management is sensitive to aspects such as social
responsibilities of various societies such as employees, trade unions, customers and shareholders.
Three streams of thinking have arisen from it: quantitative (mathematical) approach, systems
approach and contingency approach.
Quantitative Approach

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This approach emphasizes on use of mathematical models as universally recognized
analysis tool as they provide a good channel for precise explanation of relationships and
concepts. It considers variables and inputs in a quantitative basis which can be modelled to help
management in decision making. Different tools and quantitative techniques such as simulation,
linear programming are increasingly being used to cover a wide scope while studying current
problems. It is based on assumption that all aspects of management can be treated in quantitative
terms. However, it is recognized that sound judgement in managerial decisions is critical and that
mathematical models cannot be substituted (Suddaby, 2015). Contributions of this approach are
very significant in the field of management. This has boosted development of orderly thinking of
managers by bringing about exactness to managerial processes. This approach has its
limitations. It is narrow since it is merely based on solving certain managerial problems that are
specific to certain situations. In real life situations, executives are required to make decisions
quickly with no time to wait all the information necessary to develop models. The assumption
made in this approach that all variables in decision making are measurable is not realistic.
Furthermore, information available with regard to decision making based on mathematical
models are not always up to date.
Systems Approach
This approach tried to unify its predecessor schools of thoughts. Organizations are
viewed as open systems composed of interdependent subsystems whose interaction contribute to
orderly totality of an organization. It is based on the idea that things and processes in an
organization are inter-related and interdependent. Various components of the system should to be
studied with regard to their interdependent relationship instead of isolation of each (Devers, et al,
2014). The system is composed of a boundary that defines external and internal environment.

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The system receives information from outside that undergo changes within the internal
environment of subsystems and gives output to the external environment. It is therefore dynamic
and responsive to changes in the environment. System approach is important in managerial
perspective because it aims to solve objectives of an organization in an open system manner. It is
easier to locate non performing subsystems and fix them without altering the performance of
other subsystems (Harrison, et al, 2015).
This approach has contributed in analyzing the functions of complex organizations such
as project management organizations. Subsystems interactions help to bring interrelations
aspects to managerial functions of planning, organizing, controlling and leading. This approach
is advantageous over others since it is thought to be very close to reality. However, it may not be
applicable to large and more complex organizations. It is regarded vague as it fails to provide
any technique to managers.
Contingency or Situational Approach
This is the latest and it is an improvement of system approach. It is based on the fact that
management problems are different at different situations and should be handled so as to cater
for the needs at the situation. As opposed to scientific theory of management, contingency
approach views problems as situational other than repetitive and thus one best way of
management does not always apply. The behavior of one sub unit is in contingent with its
environment (Alonso, et al, 2016). To change the behavior of a sub unit, then to one must change
the situation influencing it. This approach emphasis on internal and external environments,
which are the sub systems of an organization, which are analyzed and integrated to provide
practical solutions to problems for given situations. The subsystems analysis helps in

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determination of organizational designs and managerial actions that are critical in making most
appropriate decision for specific situations.
In contrary with management theory about universality, contingency approach stipulates
no one best way of doing things will apply in all situations. Managers should prepare strategies
and policies according to situations the problems arise in. It emphasizes that for such managerial
strategies to be effective, adjustment must be made in response to changes in the environment.
Diagnostic skills need to be improved for an organization be ready and anticipate for
environmental changes. Managers need to have human relations skills in order to accommodate
change (Sharma, 2016). Contingency approach forms a basis of brighter ways for development
of management theory in future.
This approach makes a realistic view in management and disregards validity of universal
management principles. It advises executives to be creative and innovative by being situation-
oriented. However, this approach does not have theoretical base hence it is upon an executive to
weigh between options before taking an action.
Conclusion
Management theories are vital in analyzing the managerial problems. Different theories
have been formed to help in this analysis. Each of them has contributed to modern management.
Scientific management theory forms the basis of management approaches. Human relations
builds on the same but emphasizes more on human aspect. However, modern theories of
managements are not in total agreement with scientific approach. They reject the idea by
scientific theory of management that all aspects in management can be modelled mathematically
and argues that there is no one best way that will work in all situations.

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References
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