Gender Pay Gap: Evaluating Pay Inequalities in Organizations

This essay delves into the persistent issue of the gender pay gap, exploring its definition, prevalence, and impact on organizations. It begins by defining the gender pay gap and highlighting its continued existence despite legal measures. The essay analyzes a case study involving Lily Ledbetter, illustrating the challenges women face in addressing pay discrimination. It examines the reasons behind pay inequalities, emphasizing the importance of fair pay structures and the role of the Equal Pay Act. The essay further discusses theoretical approaches, including labor market discrimination and human capital models, to explain the gender pay gap. Ultimately, the essay underscores the need for organizations to address pay disparities to improve productivity, attract talent, and comply with legal and ethical standards.

Running head: GENDER PAY GAP
Gender Pay Gap
Name of the Student:
Name of the University:
Author note:

1GENDER PAY GAP
Pay inequality and gender pay gap continue to exist in the corporate sector.
Over the passage of years, a myriad of debates have been spurred on the subject of
pay disparity on the basis of genders. It is the gap between the median earnings of
men and women are paid (Mandel and Semyonov 2014). It is often heard that men
make more than women and this statement has been repeated again and again
since women joined the workforce on permanent basis. Even in the modern business
world, there is a myriad of research studies on the subject of the existence of
discrimination in terms of wage in between men and women even in the big
companies. It is called Gender Pay Gap. However, it is to mention that the concept
of gender pay gap is different for different people. As per the Cambridge dictionary it
is “the difference between the amounts of money paid to women and men, often for
doing the same work” (Peruzzi 2015). On the other hand, BBC News thinks of it quite
differently. According to it, “Unlike pay inequality - which compares the wages of men
and women doing the same job - a gender pay difference at a company is not illegal
but could possibly reflect discrimination” (Jones et al. 2016). However, whatever the
definition one may consider for gender pay gap, it is to note that it is a problem that
is continuously affecting the human mind-set since long time.
This essay shall elaborate on the topic of –“Pay inequalities between the
sexes of managers (gender pay gap)”. It shall first evaluate and analyse the notion
of what gender pay gap is and how it is influencing the organisations supported by a
case study. There are many studies that have revealed that women suffers under
compensation more than men and that too in the same department and that gender
pay gap is still thriving in the modern business world. This paper shall analyse the
different literatures and research papers about the same and shall analyse the
impacts of the gender pay gap on the managers, the notion of comparable worth and

2GENDER PAY GAP
the reasons behind the existence of gender pay gap and why organisations should
stop the practice of the same. It shall further shed light upon the Equal Pay Act and
its roles in tackling the issue.
The concept of Gender Pay Gap
It is to mention that one of the most important trends of the late twentieth
century was the rapid increase in total numbers of women entering into the paid
labour workforce. With the increase in this numbers, the difference prevailing in the
average salaries or wages of men and that of women started to decrease (Bishu and
Alkadry 2017). However, still, men as a group continued earning significantly more
than the women and this is referred to as the gender pay gap or the gender wage
gap. Although there are many laws against gender pay discrimination, the so-called
gender pay gap stubbornly prevails with marginal improvements and enhancements
being achieved over the last decade. It exists as systematic differences in between
the average salaries or wages of women than those of men. Sliwicki and Ryczkowski
(2014) believe that gender pay gap is “the average difference between hourly wages
for men and women”. It still prevails in many parts of the country regardless of the
fact that the amendments enacted in making sure that both men and women are
compensated on equal basis. The gap is seen in occupational division where the
opportunities of employment are given on the basis of the dominant gender within
the sector.
Case study: “An Insult to My Dignity”
The case is about a young girl names Lily Ledbetter. She is a working lady
and she recently found that her company, Goodyear, has decided to make a rise in
pay. She was quite excited but all her excitement reduced when she found that there

3GENDER PAY GAP
is a wide pay gap in between her and her male colleagues. She found that she was
earning 3,727$ and on the other hand, the lowest paying men in her company were
getting nearly 4,285$ for the same job. She resigned from Goodyear in the year
1998 and given payback and 3 million dollars as damage. However, when she filed a
case in Supreme Court, the result turned different. Supreme Court claimed that as
per the anti-discrimination law, Lily was required to file a formal complaint to the
federal government within 180 days of the first time she was been discriminated in
the office. For this reason, court did not take into consideration her case with a claim
that it did not count as a form of illegal discrimination as she is late. But, Lily felt that
it was a discrimination against her as she was offered with smaller pay check
compared to other working men.
Cases like such at workplaces are quite common. Many women around the
world are paid less than what men are even though they are as educated as those
men. According to Lips (2015), “in 2012, the average woman earned 80.9% of what
the average man made, when examining median weekly earnings for full-time wage
and salary workers in United States”. It is to mention that the concept of gender pay
gap began in the year 1942 after the outbreak of Second World War. During that
time, men were been deployed to the front line of the war and women gradually took
up their jobs to earn livelihoods. It was then when the National War board opined
that female employees should be getting equal salary as male employees would be
getting in the very operation. Notwithstanding this fact, employers refused to agree
with the same and right after the end of the war, they sacked the female employees
from the jobs.
Reasons behind Equal Pay

4GENDER PAY GAP
According to Jung and Yoon (2015), fair pay structure is a crucial aspect of
the personnel policy of an organisation. Heffernan and Dundon (2015) too in this
context have claimed that an important condition for achieving satisfactory labour
relations in an organisation is to ensure that its pay structure is fair. If the given pay
structure is viewed as despotic by the employees, it becomes a major reason behind
the disturbance in the labour relations. Especially, a “pay structure” is unfair if it
discriminates against women employees of the organisation. This ultimately leads to
hamper the organisational productivity and competitiveness (Jones et al. 2016).
Transparent pay systems and rewarding the entire workforce in fair way send a
productive and positive message regarding a company’s values and its ways of
working. According to Dugguh and Dennis (2014), it is one of the key factors that
affect the relationships of employees at work and their level of motivation to work for
the company. Therefore, it is quite important to develop a paying arrangement that
are not only right for the company, but at the same time also reward all the
employees in fair manner by means of providing them equal pay for the equal work
that they do.
Furthermore, it is also to mention that the fair and non-discriminatory paying
systems are legal requirements and are good management practice that every
organisation must adhere to (Nachmias, Ridgway and Caven 2019). By means of
tackling with the issue of gender pay gap, one can easily increase the productivity
and efficiency and it would help in attracting the best employees towards the
organisations while reducing the staff turnover, reducing absenteeism and increasing
commitment. As per the report of 2019, about 63percent of female employees and
46percent of male employees have reported that their personal incomes are below
50,000$ (Shaw et al. 2019). Here again, the percentile of women is greater than that

5GENDER PAY GAP
of men. It should be noted that equal-pay is a key part of CSR activity of a company.
It is highly vital for the stakeholders. Failure to make sure that equal pay can result in
some legal claims and reputational damage, which would ultimately affect the
commercial success of the company negatively.
Equal Pay Act
The world-wide labour force has long been a made dominated dimension and
during 1940s, the then jobs were advertised on the basis of gender (Siniscalco,
Damrell and Nabity 2014). High salaried managerial position jobs were secluded for
the males regardless of the fact that often the other gender has the potential of
occupying the job more than the males. The then two-tiered scale used to ascertain
that males were the priority and they were compensated more than the females. It
was not until 1944 when Rep. Winfred Stanley proposed the first ever bill that
demanded National Labour Relations Act for abolishing the gender pay gap.
Again, in the year 1950, Katherine St. George proposed a bill, that granted the
amendment of Equal Rights for both men and women (Garben 2018).
Notwithstanding this, the bill failed initially but St. George stayed determined on his
believe that women are more likely to change the economic status of the country in
positive way if they were given the chance. Finally, in the year 1963, President John
Kennedy signed the Equal Pay Act and it was formalised since the beginning of
1964.
It is to mention that the Equal Pay Act outlaws the system of wage prejudice
on the basis of gender and it emphasises on the notion that both men and women
should be paid equally for the works that are done under similar conditions. The
concept of equal compensation comprises of bonuses, salaries and other holiday

6GENDER PAY GAP
pays. It is also to note that the Equal Pay Act gives liberty to a person to file a case
claiming that he or she is under-compensated based on gender discrimination under
the Title VIII of the Civil Rights Acts (Case 2014). With the same, the employers are
made cautioned against retaliating against the employees who file the claim against
the different discriminatory practices in workplace. Notwithstanding this fact, this law
also allows the existence of wage discrimination on the basis of merit, levels of
production and position and this is legal.
However, Gender Pay Gap still prevails in many parts of the country
regardless of the fact that the amendments enacted in making sure that both men
and women are compensated on equal basis (Nachmias, Ridgway and Caven 2019).
The gender pay gap is proved to be existed in the occupational division where the
opportunities of employment are granted on the basis of the dominant gender within
the industry. The organisations that are male dominated offers better compensations
and advantages compared to the other female dominated organisations or
industries. Notwithstanding the domination of gender, in all the occupation, men are
likely to make more money than women.
Theoretical approaches to the issue of gender pay gap
It is to note that according to the traditionalists, there were two models to
explain the concept of gender pay gap and they are the labour market
discrimination model and the human capital model.
Labour market discrimination model- The portion of pay gap in between
the wages of men and women, which is not because of gender differences in terms
of qualifications, is presumed to be because of the discrimination in the labour
market (Baert and Vujic 2015). There are many concepts of discrimination that are

7GENDER PAY GAP
used for describing and analysing the conditions on the labour market. It comprise
of- employer discrimination, employee discrimination, and customer discrimination,
statistical discrimination and explains the sources if discrimination in the labour
market. It is to mention that labour market discrimination influences the wages and
occupations of women. Neumark (2018) have defined he labour market
discrimination as the situation where the workers are treated differently on the basis
of pay, benefits provided, recruitment and promotion due to their non-economic
characteristics like religion, age, race and gender.
Human capital model- The differences in gender in terms of qualifications
have been analysed within this model of human capital. The key idea of this model is
that every individual has some or the other forms of human capital. The human
capital could be identified as the abilities and the skills that people have and taken
through experience, training and education. All these skills are based on the
earnings that the get. According to Cross (2015), women choose the occupations for
decreasing the loses that are related to more intermittent attachment to the labour
force. Given with the traditional division of labour by gender in the family, females
tend to accumulate less experience about labour market compared to males. With
the same, as females anticipate shorter and much more discontinuous working lives
due to different reasons, they get comparatively low incentives for investing in the
labour market (Stewart 2014). The longer hours than females spend for completing
their household works can also reduce the efforts they put into their market jobs as
compared to men and this further control the working hours and finally reduce their
workplace productivity and their salaries (Baert and Vujic 2015). The human capital
model signifies a very significant role for the wage structure in explaining the gender
pay gap. According to it, if women have less experience than the men, on an

8GENDER PAY GAP
average, the higher the return for experiences received by the workers, the larger
would be the gender pay gap.
Reasons behind gender pay gap
According to the research studies, there are a total of two key reasons behind
the prevalence of the issue of gender pay gap (Palacios-Lopez and Lopez 2015).
The very first is that there are more numbers of men doing the senior managerial
roles compared to women. Also, more men wish to do senior managerial roles than
women do as a whole and as senior manager tend to be paid more than their junior,
this negatively impacts the gender pay gap. But, this does not mean that the existing
disparity cannot be tackled. It is to mention that at the heart of the issue is the
assumption that the senior job roles need long hours and constant availability and
therefore, they cannot be done part-time or flexibly. This is basically because of the
1950s pattern of men who used to go out to work and earn money while women
used to be at home for supporting them- enabling the men to focus on their work to
the exclusion of everything else in life. This concept has been significant
exacerbated in different industries with the rise in globalisation and advancement in
technology that have extended the working hours from 10 to 12 hours a day.
Although employers who operate a long-hours culture for the senior managerial roles
are likely to be the worst offenders of the issue. According to the studies, long hours
are inherently gendered and they fuel up the gap of gender pay (Perrons 2017).
Also, researches have revealed that for the highest educated women, this gap has
not reduced at all in the last two decades.
Secondly, the part-time roles and caring responsibilities are not shared
equally in majority of the organisations (Sujan 2015). Women choose to care for their

9GENDER PAY GAP
children at home and for this reason, it is very natural of them to end up in choosing
part-time jobs that are below their skill levels and have fewer progress or growth
opportunities. Taken together, the burden of care remains on the shoulders of the
women and therefore, career breaks like maternity leave and taking time out for
raising children hamper the pay prospects of women significantly. It is worth noting
that the gender pay gap increases after childbirth (Blau and Kahn 2017). By the time
the first child turns 20 years, the hourly wages of women turns into being two-third of
the wages of men. Hence, motherhood works as a penalty for women. This is also
based on similar assumptions like the above mentioned one. It is that the part-time
jobs are less senior and therefore are downgraded. With the same, positioning the
part-time jobs as choices of women suggests that women are responsible for their
lower earning (Palacios-Lopez and Lopez 2015). Also, there are certain societal
expectations too that are at play here. Men in United Kingdom find it harder to ask
for part-time jobs and majority of them do not want to work as part-time employees.
Research studies have revealed that more than half of the younger fathers in U.K.
would choose to take a pay cut for working less and spending more time with their
families.
Impacts of Gender Pay Gap
Gender pay gap is undisputable and female have lower incomes, less
advantageous terms of employment and lower wages compared to men. This
discrimination influences the position of female employees in the labour market and
at the same time, their power and status as women in their household. These
differences at the workplace are changed into inequality faced by the women after
the retirement period. As of the fact that women are paid low, the benefits related to
social security also gets low. Furthermore, O’Reilly et al. (2015) in this context have

10GENDER PAY GAP
claimed that as the inequalities during their working life lead women to get lower
retirement payments. With the same, the inequality in between the earnings of men
and women determine the other negative consequences as well. For instance, as
per Saridakis, Marlow and Storey (2014), lower rate of wages for women can
increase their economic dependence on their male counterparts. This further
increases their susceptibility to face domestic violence.
Equality in terms of economy means different things to different people and
this is more differentiated among men and women (Stoet and Geary 2015). A male
who is in the position of economic independence is the man who does not need to
work for earning a living. On the other hand, a female who is in the position of
economic independence is all about being able of supporting them by means of paid
work so that they are not dependent on their partners. It is to note that there is an
increasing numbers of divorce cases that influence the position of women. The
single mothers are likely to remain as the sole wage earners in their families. It is
very important for understanding the key reasons behind the pay related inequalities
and to seek for the different methods of resolving the issues regarding the gender
pay gap.
Jobs Comparable Worth
According to Yadav and Dabhade (2014), comparable worth refers to the
principle than men and women must be compensated equally for the works that
require comparable skills, efforts and responsibilities. It is also known as pay equity
or sex equity. In simpler terms, it is shorthand for “equal pay for work of equal value
for the work of comparable worth”. It was set by the ILO (International Labour
Organisation) in the year 1951 (Equal remuneration Convention, No. 100; Equal

11GENDER PAY GAP
Remuneration Recommendation, No. 90). The doctrine of this concept is an attempt
for solving the problem of inequities of pay that further result from long history of
gender segregated jobs along with different pay scales for male and female jobs.
It is to mention that comparable worth in the job related responsibilities aid
towards gender wage discrimination cases. Shin (2015) has argued that jobs are
evaluated on the basis of their investments and standards for determining job
performance and pay equity. According to Hebson and Rubery (2018) comparable
worth is considered as equality in wage. Dilmaghani and Tabvuma (2019) have
opined that comparable worth was designed in a way for ascertaining value and
farness of female-dominated positions or job roles as much as men were
considered. It is to note that in earlier days, equality in pay was attained by means of
ensuring the secretarial positions, which were regarded as the female territory was
compensated similarly to the profession of truck drivers that were traditionally
segregated for men. Notwithstanding this fact, Siniscalco, Damrell and Nabity (2014)
have further claimed that accreditation will work towards the abolishment of equal
wage discrimination as the organisations would be awarded on the basis of their
capacity for conforming and maintaining the policies that are set by Equal Pay Act.
Furthermore, the concept of comparable worth depends on evaluation of job that
further depends on the attributes like efforts, responsibilities, skills and the working
environment.
a) Economic impact of comparable worth
It is to mention that the opponents of the comparable worth have claimed that the
move would be disadvantageous for the women and would lead to increase in their
unemployment crisis (Stoet and Geary 2015). The industries that are female-

12GENDER PAY GAP
dominated would decrease in terms of demand and would thereby make the
occupations highly inelastic as the employers would be coerced towards increasing
the wages on the basis of the evaluation of jobs (Kirton and Guillaume 2017).
Furthermore, it is also to mention that the high labour cost would further probe the
employers to replace the present undervalued female employees with labour saving
technologies that are cheap. The net cost of production would make the customers
pay high prices for the services and products than they used to pay before the
increase in labour cost. The result of the scenario would led to reduction in
employment for the female-dominated places at the same time, would give high
wages for the women who are already occupying job positions in these fields.
Moreover, the wages for female employees would be reduced to certain extent as
there are some industries in the female-dominated job roles that are not covered
when law was implemented (Goldin 2014). Comparable worth might be enacted in
both the medium and large companies compared to the smaller ones. For this
reason, the female employees who were influenced by the comparable worth policy
law, would get transferred towards the uncovered industries’ increasing supply of
labour. It is also to mention that the increase in terms of labour supply is likely to
reduce the wage of female employees who are employed in the smaller firms for
accommodating new entrants. Hence, the main purpose behind the maintenance of
the status quo is to make sure that both men and women can keep their employment
in the long run.
b) Job evaluation in comparable worth
The advocates for the comparable worth have opined that the discrimination
related to pay have aided towards the misallocation of labour by means of subjecting

13GENDER PAY GAP
men and women in diverse industries notwithstanding their productivity. In many
countries, their legislations guarantee the principle of “equal pay for equal work”,
obliging employers in the country to pay same salary for the same work. Some of
them include the Article 119 of Treaty of Rome, 1957, Equal Pay Act, of United
States, 19 63 etc. (Jacquot 2015). Failure in complying with these precepts is very
easy to detect, but, it still occurs. Keeping aside the differences between the ages
corresponding to the equal jobs in diverse companies or in diverse establishments of
a company, equal jobs with diverse wage might co-exist even within a firm and this
further hide the equality of jobs by means of giving them diverse denominations.
It is to mention that it is more difficult to identify the non-compliance with the
wider principle of comparable worth, as per which the employers need to pay same
remuneration for the works of comparable values. The acceptance of the
comparable worth principle that encompasses the narrower concept of “equal pay for
equal work” is the key for fighting the discrimination of wages against women
(Moriarty 2015). However, the greatest challenge lies in the process of applying the
principles lies in the shortage of general agreement about precisely what is to be
meant by the value of work and how it could be quantified.
Companies can make use of job evaluation as a key instrument for detecting and
combating the wage discrimination issue. It is an old tool of industrial engineering
and there are many firms that use them or have used them, notwithstanding the fact
that there are many job evaluation systems that are skill discriminatory against the
women and the main reason behind this is the fact that majority of the male
dominated jobs are overvalued and that of the female dominated jobs, undervalued.
According to Wozniak, Harbaugh and Mayr (2014), through the job evaluation
procedures, one can easily detect the wage discrimination and even fight for the

14GENDER PAY GAP
same. The fact that their main objective is evaluating the jobs and not the people or
gender, is in itself a critical anti-discriminatory characteristic. The evaluation is based
on the observation and on the job discrimination and if this description or observation
is biased, discrimination can take place even if the set of factors that are to be
regarded and their weighting are defined in correct manner.
Hence, from the above analysis it is to conclude that gender pay gap is an
emotive topic. Money not only determines the quality of life of women and their
families, but at the same time, also their access to the opportunities, which can aid to
their future. Gender pay gap is very common in the corporate world regardless of the
professional experiences and educational levels secured by men and women. In
spite of holding a large share in the labour force, women continue to face pay
inequalities. This discrimination influences the position of female employees in the
labour market and at the same time, their power and status as women in their
household. In fact, the inequalities during their working life also leave women to get
lower retirement payments (Stoet and Geary 2015). Gender Pay Gap still prevails in
many parts of the country regardless of the fact that the amendments enacted in
making sure that both men and women are compensated on equal basis. In many
countries, their legislations guarantee the principle of “equal pay for equal work”,
obliging employers in the country to pay same salary for the same work, but that do
not stop the occurrence of gender pay gap. The main reason behind this is the fact
that majority of the male dominated jobs are overvalued and that of the female
dominated jobs, undervalued. With the same, there are more numbers of men doing
the senior managerial roles compared to women and at the same time, the part-time
roles and caring responsibilities are not shared equally in majority of the
organisations. These two are the root cause behind the long existence of gender pay

15GENDER PAY GAP
gap. There are a range of advantages that the organisations that comply with Equal
Pay Act can enjoy. Transparent pay systems and rewarding the entire workforce in
fair way send a productive and positive message regarding a company’s values and
its ways of working. With the same, as it is one of the key factors that affect the
relationships of employees at work and their level of motivation to work for the
company, one can easily increase the productivity and efficiency and it would help in
attracting the best employees towards the organisations while reducing the staff
turnover, reducing absenteeism and increasing commitment.

16GENDER PAY GAP
References:
Baert, S. and Vujić, S., 2016. Immigrant volunteering: a way out of labour market
discrimination?. Economics Letters, 146, pp.95-98.
Bishu, S.G. and Alkadry, M.G., 2017. A systematic review of the gender pay gap and
factors that predict it. Administration & Society, 49(1), pp.65-104.
Blau, F.D. and Kahn, L.M., 2017. The gender wage gap: Extent, trends, and
explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), pp.789-865.
Case, M.A., 2014. Legal Protections for the Personal Best of Each Employee: Title
VII's Prohibition on Sex Discrimination, the Legacy of Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins,
and the Prospect of ENDA. Stan. L. Rev., 66, p.1333.
Cross, P., 2015. The Recession's Impact on Canada's Labour Market. SPP
Research Paper, 8(28).
Dilmaghani, M. and Tabvuma, V., 2019. No Rosy glasses in Bluesy Ghettos? Job
satisfaction of pink and blue collar workers and the comparable worth
legislations. Labor History, 60(4), pp.392-407.
Dugguh, S.I. and Dennis, A., 2014. Job satisfaction theories: Traceability to
employee performance in organizations. IOSR journal of business and
management, 16(5), pp.11-18.
Garben, S., 2018. The problematic interaction between EU and international law in
the area of social rights. Cambridge International Law Journal, 7(1), pp.77-98.

17GENDER PAY GAP
Goldin, C., 2014. A pollution theory of discrimination: male and female differences in
occupations and earnings. In Human capital in history: The American record (pp.
313-348). University of Chicago Press.
Hebson, G. and Rubery, J., 2018. Employment relations and gender equality. The
Routledge Companion to Employment Relations, Oxford: Routledge.
Heffernan, M. and Dundon, T., 2016. Cross‐level effects of high‐performance work
systems (HPWS) and employee well‐being: the mediating effect of organisational
justice. Human Resource Management Journal, 26(2), pp.211-231.
Jacquot, S., 2015. From Rome to Maastricht: The Golden Age of an Exceptional
Policy?. In Transformations in EU Gender Equality (pp. 19-56). Palgrave Macmillan,
London.
Jones, K.P., Peddie, C.I., Gilrane, V.L., King, E.B. and Gray, A.L., 2016. Not so
subtle: A meta-analytic investigation of the correlates of subtle and overt
discrimination. Journal of management, 42(6), pp.1588-1613.
Jung, H.S. and Yoon, H.H., 2015. Understanding pay satisfaction: The impacts of
pay satisfaction on employees’ job engagement and withdrawal in deluxe
hotel. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 48, pp.22-26.
Kirton, G. and Guillaume, C., 2017. Work, employment and engagement conditions
in a female‐dominated public service occupation after
restructuring/outsourcing. Industrial Relations Journal, 48(5-6), pp.482-499.
Lips, H.M., 2016. The gender pay gap and the wellbeing of working women.
In Handbook on Well-Being of Working Women (pp. 141-157). Springer, Dordrecht.

18GENDER PAY GAP
Mandel, H. and Semyonov, M., 2014. Gender pay gap and employment sector:
Sources of earnings disparities in the United States, 1970–
2010. Demography, 51(5), pp.1597-1618.
Moriarty, J., 2016. Is ‘equal pay for equal work’merely a principle of
nondiscrimination?. Economics & Philosophy, 32(3), pp.435-461.
Nachmias, S., Ridgway, M. and Caven, V., 2019. The Legal Framework on Diversity
and Equality. In Inequality and Organizational Practice (pp. 15-36). Palgrave
Macmillan, Cham.
Neumark, D., 2018. Experimental research on labor market discrimination. Journal of
Economic Literature, 56(3), pp.799-866.
O’Reilly, J., Smith, M., Deakin, S. and Burchell, B., 2015. Equal pay as a moving
target: International perspectives on forty-years of addressing the gender pay
gap. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 39(2), pp.299-317.
Palacios-López, A. and López, R., 2015. The gender gap in agricultural productivity:
the role of market imperfections. The Journal of Development Studies, 51(9),
pp.1175-1192.
Perrons, D., 2017. Gender and inequality: austerity and
alternatives. Intereconomics, 52(1), pp.28-33.
Peruzzi, M., 2015. Contradictions and misalignments in the EU approach towards
the gender pay gap. Cambridge Journal of economics, 39(2), pp.441-465.

19GENDER PAY GAP
Saridakis, G., Marlow, S. and Storey, D.J., 2014. Do different factors explain male
and female self-employment rates?. Journal of Business Venturing, 29(3), pp.345-
362.
Shaw, E., Hess, C., Childers, C., Hayes, J. and Tesfaselassie, A., 2019. ASSETS
FOR EQUITY.
Shin, T., 2016. Fair pay or power play? Pay equity, managerial power, and
compensation adjustments for CEOs. Journal of Management, 42(2), pp.419-448.
Siniscalco, G., Damrell, L. and Nabity, C.M., 2014. The pay gap, the glass ceiling,
and pay bias: Moving forward fifty years after the equal pay act. ABA Journal of
Labor & Employment Law, pp.395-427.
Siniscalco, G., Damrell, L. and Nabity, C.M., 2014. The pay gap, the glass ceiling,
and pay bias: Moving forward fifty years after the equal pay act. ABA Journal of
Labor & Employment Law, pp.395-427.
Śliwicki, D. and Ryczkowski, M., 2014. Gender Pay Gap in the micro level–case of
Poland. Metody Ilościowe w Badaniach Ekonomicznych, 15(1), pp.159-173.
Stewart, K., 2014. Employment trajectories and later employment outcomes for
mothers in the British Household Panel Survey: An analysis by skill level. Journal of
Social Policy, 43(1), pp.87-108.
Stoet, G. and Geary, D.C., 2015. Sex differences in academic achievement are not
related to political, economic, or social equality. Intelligence, 48, pp.137-151.

20GENDER PAY GAP
Sujan, M., 2015. An organisation without a memory: a qualitative study of hospital
staff perceptions on reporting and organisational learning for patient
safety. Reliability engineering & system safety, 144, pp.45-52.
Wozniak, D., Harbaugh, W.T. and Mayr, U., 2014. The menstrual cycle and
performance feedback alter gender differences in competitive choices. Journal of
Labor Economics, 32(1), pp.161-198.
Yadav, R.K. and Dabhade, N., 2014. Work life balance and job satisfaction among
the working women of banking and education sector-A comparative
study. International Letters of Social and Humanistic Sciences, 21, pp.181-201.