Comprehensive Report: The Geological Sequence of Events in Kelburnia

This report provides a chronological overview of the geological events in Kelburnia, starting with the formation of Breccia and progressing through the appearance of various rock formations, intrusions, and fossil records. The sequence includes the formation of conglomerate, sandstone, mudstone, limestone, and granite intrusions, followed by basalt flows, basalt intrusions, and volcanic ash. Contact metamorphic rocks and fault occurrences are also discussed. Furthermore, the report details the presence of coal and the discovery of Devonian trilobite fossils, Cretaceous leaf fossils, Paleogene marine clam fossils, and Neogene marine snail fossils, providing a comprehensive understanding of Kelburnia's geological history and the approximate periods of their formation. The report is based on the provided references and is a structured analysis of the provided geological information.

GEOLOGY
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Introduction
The geological sequence of events Kelburnia can be obtained as per the physical features and
other related information provided in this particular structure. This particular paper has therefore
arranged the information from the oldest to the youngest as per their dated periods.
Breccia
This is a rock which is formed from the boulder-sized and angular gravel clasts which are
cemented together within a matrix. Their angular property is an indication that they have never
been under the influence of transportation agent from the further distance. Geologically, Breccia
has several modes of the transformation (Ross & Self 2014). However, for the case of the
Kelburnia, the process is through volcanic activities. It is therefore made up of lava blocks in the
matrix of ash and basically considered as the product of explosive eruptions. This makes them
the primary base rock for the start of the geological products of weathering. It is therefore
regarded as the oldest geological component in Kelburnia.
Conglomerate
Conglomerate is basically a clastic sedimentary rock that has large rounded clasts. This kind of
the rock has variety of the composition which constitutes weathering products washed down
current or just downstream. Such kind of the rounded clasts is minerals of igneous or metaphoric
and in some cases may contain traces of limestone, sandstone and granite. The matrixes which
are responsible for binding these particles together include mud, sand or just chemical cement.
Since they form from the weathering processes of the Breccia, their geological period follows
just after the existence of Breccia. It will take very strong currents of water to facilitate the
transportation as well as production of the particles which are rounded.

Sandstone
Sandstones are usually formed from the grains of quartz which is lithified and fall between 2mm
and 0.06mm in size. A small portion of such minerals contain mica, feldspar and finally
fragments which might be present in those rocks. These grains are closely packed together
leading to the formation of a compact stone. In some cases they are sparsely distributed to form a
stone which is porous (Mayne et al. 2012). . They are available in various colors with varying
strength and durability. Sandstones are partly products of the weathering processes of the
conglomerate and Breccia. This implies that their geological period occurred after the period of
the conglomerate and Breccia.
Mudstone
Mudstone is extremely a sedimentary rock which is fine-grained. It is made up of a mixture of
silt and clay-sized particles. It is also refered to as siltstone or clay stone in some instances
although such references are made are made to the sizes of the grain which falls under much
narrower ranges and are within the close examination (Parry et al.2014). They are technically
refered to as mudstone. In some cases, shale is a term which may be used to describe mudstones
which are fissile and hard since they break along the bedding planes. The geological period of
this kind of the mineral followed immediately sandstone occurrence which underwent
disintegration.
Limestone
Limestone is another sedimentary rocks which has over 50% of the carbonate of calcium
commonly known as (calcite - CaCO3). There are different types of limestone which are formed
through various processes. During the process of chemical reaction, limestone is precipitated

from water. Also it can be secreted by the organisms of the marine such as coral and algae.
Compaction process may take from Dead Sea creatures’ cells. Some of the limestone traces their
geological history from the sand cementation and in this case they have mudstone or sandstone
appearance. The principle mineral component of the limestone is calcite and it will fizz in the
dilute HCL.
Granite Intrusion
Granite intrusion which takes place in the upper crust is modeled along the crustal-scale shear
zone. The modeling is through injection of a Newtonian fluid into a sand pack which has a
ductile layer. The layer is made up of the silicone putty that provides a weak level for spreading
of the material. From the geological structure shown in the figure, it is evident that two
competent units present allowed for the formation of the laccolith intrusions through lateral
expansion. The lateral intrusions expansion was controlled by the faults.
Basalt flow
Basalt refers to the dark gray or black and finely grained rock of igneous type which is generated
from the process of lava eruptions. They are very voluminous other than being abundant and this
evident from the shared geological feature of Kelburnia. Their brown color comes from being
exposed to air implying that they are majorly made up of. Basalt flows are basically voluminous,
non-eruptive and characterized iron by relatively low viscosity. The portion of the continental
masses is majorly made up materials of granite (Jaboyedoff et al.2015). The layers that are found
on the lower section are usually acting as the sources of basaltic extrusions.
Basalt Intrusion

The processes of melting and generation of silicic magma is expected when basal magma is
emplaced into the continental crust. The heat transfer processes and the fluid dynamical which
are found at the roof of the basaltic sill. The application of the basaltic silt into the hot crust
makes the thickness of the sill from basalt is up to 1500m. Every basalt input triggered rapid
formation of magma from silica in the region of Kelburnia. The period of the geological
formation was during the active processes of the intrusion. This is why it is regarded as a product
of the basalt flow.
Volcanic Ash
Volcanic Ash is made up of particles which range from powder size to size of the sand. The
materials are majorly igneous materials. This particular term is only used to refer to the materials
when it is still in the air. After falling to the ground and being lithified, it is refered to as volcanic
dust. The particles of the volcanic ash are insoluble in water (Robertson et al.2019). They tend to
form slurry when they become wet and this is evident from the illustrated geological feature of
Kelburnia area. This wet substance can possibly dry into a concrete –like solid mass. Its
geological period is usually immediate as it occurs during the eruption process.
Contact Metamorphic rocks
During the process of the volcanic eruptions, hot magma does come into contact with the pre-
existing minerals and rocks. These rocks and minerals will have their texture changed by heat
which is as a result of being in contact with magma. Their geological data is soon after the
intrusion of the hot magma which forces its way through the rock layers (Harff, Bailey & Lüth
2016).
Fault Occurance

Rocks are gradually changing in shape and continuously moving. When subjected to very high
pressure and temperature which is common deep within the Earth, it is possible for rocks to bend
and possibly flow. In the parts of the earth which are cool, these minerals and rocks are brittle
and cooler. Their response to the larger stresses is usually through fracturing. Some of the agents
of the processes of the cracking are the earthquake itself. A fault is therefore regarded as a crack
across which there is an offset by the rocks. Faults provide the weak lines through which magma
escapes during the volcanic eruption.
Coal Occurrence
The area of Kelburnia must have had very dense forest several million years ago. The forests
were found in the lowland areas. As a result of the natural processes like flooding, these forests
were buried and more and more soil layers were deposited on them making them compressed.
The process of the compression led to the increase of the temperature (Gutiérrez, Gutiérrez &
Martín 2014). Due to this high temperature and pressure, these dead organic matters were
converted into coal.
Devonian Trilobite Fossils
The changes in the environment which were emphasized on the stratigraphic turnouts are
believed to have affected the Devonian trilobite’s development. The period brought very
important diversification on the terrestrial life (Grützner et al.2014). Some of the classes of the
affected animals include first amphibians as well as the first species of the trees. This led to the
increase in the diversity as well as the complexity of the marine life. This was a periods of over
365 million years ago. In particular, Placoderm armoured fishes enjoyed their greatest
complexity and diversity in this period although they later disappeared leading to the generation

of the fossils during this period. The fossils which formed this period in the Kelburnia dates
backs to 365 million years (Coates et al.2013).
Cretaceous Leaf Fossils
The period of the cretaceous is considered to be the longest as the last segment of Mesozoic era.
This period lasted for about 79 million years ago. This is from the minor extinction which took
place in the period of the Jurassic in about 145.5 million years ago. It was during this period that
the continents were drifting apart. The fossils which firmed in the Kelburnia in this period are
therefore dated to 79 million of years.
Paleogene Marine Clam Fossils
It was during the period of the Paleogene that the continents began drifting apart heading
towards their current positions. This kind of drifting is believed to have contributed to the
burying of the certain species of plants and animals which later became fossils. During this
period, the temperatures dried and cooled very significantly and this was 55 million years
ago.The fossils in Kelburnia are therefore dated back to this late period of time (Centeno et
al.2013).
Neogene Marine Snail Fossils
This can be regarded as the latest period of the geological period of Kelburnia as per the
structure or the geological information shared previously. These kind of the fossils must have
taken place in the period between 3 and 3.3 million years ago hence considered as the most
recent activity. In conclusion, the information provided in this particular is a rough estimate of
the geological events which took place in Kelburnia area.

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