Challenges and Interventions for Global Nutrition and Food Security

This report delves into the critical issues of global nutrition and food security, highlighting the dual-burden of malnutrition, a condition characterized by the coexistence of undernutrition and overnutrition within the same populations, families, or individuals. The report examines the prevalence of thi...Read More

Global nutrition and food security 1
Global nutrition and food security
Student's Name:
Instructor's Name:
Date:

Global nutrition and food security 2
Global nutrition and food security
Introduction:
The dual-burden of nutrition is essentially described as a state of co-existence of stunting or
undernourishment (malnutrition) or obesity due to over nutrition (Varela-Silva et al., 2012).
The coexistence is found to be present in the same group of people and the same population
sample i.e. belonging to a particular location, ethnicity, or population (Varela-Silva et al.,
2012). Further, the coexistence may occur in the same individual, family, or household
(Varela-Silva et al., 2012). The phenomenon described above has been termed ‘dual-burden
malnutrition’ and has been noticed predominantly in the developing, underdeveloped, and
low or middle-income nations or continents (Varela-Silva et al., 2012). The problems
associated with malnutrition and the nutritional dual-burden have been examined in research
in the more recent times (Varela-Silva et al., 2012). The dual-burden of malnutrition have
been observed in households of the low and middle-income and developing nations (Varela-
Silva et al., 2012). The most commonly noticed issues related to malnutrition include
underdevelopment of height and appropriate values of weight (Varela-Silva et al., 2012).
Obesity in infants is commonly mistaken for optimal nourishment which leads to increased
difficulty in the management of the nutritional dual-burden concern (Varela-Silva et al.,
2012). Research has observed that the occurrence of underdevelopment of height and being
overweight are contradictory to the biological nature of human development (Varela-Silva et
al., 2012). These occurrences have not been predicted in the conventional food systems or
nutritional bases (Varela-Silva et al., 2012).
Dual-burden of nutrition is a relatively recent pandemic that has been affecting people across
the world (Popkin et al., 2012). The pandemic of obesity has fast evolved in the recent times
in both the developed and the underdeveloped or developing world (Popkin et al., 2012).The

Global nutrition and food security 3
primary reason for the evolution of the dual-burden obesity and malnutrition pandemic is the
considerable alteration in the lifestyle, dietary, and exercise patterns in the world (Popkin et
al., 2012). With the advent of westernization in dietary and lifestyle habits, the pandemic of
obesity has gained immense growth in the recent times (Popkin et al., 2012). The amount of
physical activity is greatly decreased in the Western as well as the rest of the world. The
phenomenon of modified dietary patterns is known as ‘nutrition transition’. The transition in
dietary patterns as compared to the conventional food intake systems of the region, leads to
altered health patterns and ultimately causes obesity or dual-burden malnutrition (Popkin et
al., 2012). Research has found that the statistical ratios of the sociodemographic data in terms
of age, race, ethnicity, and region in specific and subspecific sections of the studied
population has resulted in obesity in children and adults (Popkin et al., 2012). The increase in
the intake of processed food which is has low nutritional index, but high amounts of fat, is
one of the primary reasons for the occurrence of this pandemic (Popkin et al., 2012).
The World Health Organisation (WHO) stresses the need for food security across the globe
(Guyomard et al., 2012). The concept of food security is described as the achievement of
access of food which is adequate, nutritious, and safe for consumption by an individual,
family, or household (Guyomard et al., 2012). The WHO emphasises that upon ensuring food
security in a nation, the economic and social status of the nation is largely improved
(Guyomard et al., 2012).
The WHO has found that the status of food security is low across the globe (Guyomard et al.,
2012). Similar to obesity and the problem of being overweight, undernourishment and
malnutrition are of equal importance (De Onis & Blossner, 2006). The management of the
dual-burden of nutrition is primarily based on the contradictory presence of
undernourishment and obesity within particular households or populations (De Onis &

Global nutrition and food security 4
Blossner, 2006). Due to the contradictory nature of these pandemics, the management of the
problem becomes increasingly difficult (De Onis & Blossner, 2006). However, in the recent
times, the advent of health systems that lay emphasis on both under and overnutrition has
begun (De Onis & Blossner, 2006). Research has identified that the presence of dual-burden
households is a social health concern and needs to be addressed effectively (Doak et al.,
2005). Studies have reflected upon the connection between the dual-burden households and
residence in urban areas or the level of income in households (Doak et al., 2005). Scientists
deduce that undernourishment may be a side-effect of overnutrition prevention programmes
in individuals of normal weight ranges (Doak et al., 2005). Literature points out that there is
statistically significant level of positive association between stunting and obesity with the
age, lack of physical activity, and the skipping of breakfast or the first meal in the day (El-
Kassas & Ziade, 2017). Therefore, some of the most prominent strategies for intervention in
the cases of dual-burden households entails the assessment of the dietary and lifestyle habits.
These interventions focus on improved dietary habits with the intake of nutritional food,
increased physical activity, and reduced screen time or sedentary habits (El-Kassas & Ziade,
2017). Every nation or region in today’s times, faces challenges with respect to
undernutrition, obesity, and dual-burden malnutrition (Gillespie & Bold, 2017). Therefore,
research considers malnutrition as a multi-layered and multi-sectoral public health concern
that leads to a complex interaction between each household and the agricultural and food
production systems of the nation, decision-making concerns of the individual and the
household, the systems of environmental and health policies practiced in the nation (Gillespie
& Bold, 2017).
The current article discusses the occurrence of dual-burden malnutrition in Sub-Saharan
Africa along with providing an analysis of the nutrition, food production, and dietary patterns
of the region. Additionally, it provides a suitable intervention for tackling the dual-burden of

Global nutrition and food security 5
malnutrition in the region by addressing the concerns of the nutrition transition and
retainment of traditional food systems.
National dietary patterns and food production statistics for Sub-Saharan Africa:
Malnutrition is generally characterised by various forms of nutritional problems including
undernutrition, obesity, prevalence of hunger, deficiencies of micronutrients, and
overnutrition (Fanzo, 2012). The term malnutrition is a broad concept and includes the
individuals subject to malnutrition and lack of dietary supplements. The calories and protein
that is required for normal health status are primary indicators of health and nutrition in
children and women (Fanzo, 2012). The lack or deficiency of essential nutrients such as
minerals and vitamins results in hidden hunger or deficiency of micronutrients that lead to the
development of malnutrition and hunger in most individuals (Fanzo, 2012).
The primary disorder that results in the development of malnutrition include the origin of
undernourishment in most children. There is the presence of a global pandemic of acute
malnutrition that is termed “wasting” (Fanzo, 2012). Wasting is described as the occurrence
of a low weight in individuals of a particular height (Fanzo, 2012). The ratio of height to
weight is grossly disturbed in most of these cases (Fanzo, 2012). In cases of wasting, there is
an additional occurrence of oedema in most individuals.
In Africa, the ratios of wasting in children have remained high and malnutrition has not seen
significant improvement in the recent years (Lartey, 2008). The global hunger index (GHI)
has shown some degree of improvement in Africa since 2010; however, the overall Sub-
Saharan African continent does not indicate a considerable degree of improvement (Lartey,
2008).
Statistically, in the Sub-Saharan African region, the number of undernourished or cases of
malnutrition have been: 100 million approx. in 1990-92; 150 million approx. in 1995-97; 200

Global nutrition and food security 6
million approx. in 2000-02, 2005-07, and 2008 respectively. It has increased in 2009 reaching
approximately 250 million, and slightly reduced in 2010 to 210 million approximately
(Lartey, 2008). The percentage of undernourished population is the highest in the Sub-
Saharan African region: 34% approx. in 1990-92; 32% approx. in 1995-97; 30% in 2000-02;
28% approx. in 2005-07; 26% approx. in 2008; 31% in 2009; and 30% in 2010
approximately (Lartey, 2008).
The current scenario in the Sub-Saharan African region indicates the absence of effective
nutritional and food production strategies. The lack of nutrition in children and maternal
nutritional deficits has led to the development of malnutrition pandemics a=in the continent.
The primary aim in order to eradicate the malnutrition and dual-burden nutrition problem is
to provide sufficient micronutrients and to ensure minimum calorific intake in individuals
according to age, height, gender, ethnicity, and region (Lartey, 2008).
Intervention:
The population that includes women who are bearing children such as the pregnant women
and those feeding their babies, children and infants, and older adults (Lartey,
2008).Therefore, women, children, and the elderly comprise the most vulnerable population
that is at the risk of nutritional disorders (Lartey, 2008). These individuals have a nutritional
vulnerability that originates from requirements that have higher extent of physiological
nutrient levels (Lartey, 2008). More often than not, their nutritional requirements are not
fulfilled in these individuals (Lartey, 2008). Due to the lack of interventions in most countries
for the dual-burden nutrition, the concern for the public health problem is often not addressed
adequately (Lartey, 2008). Women, especially those lactating and those pregnant, makes
them additionally vulnerable to nutritional concerns (Lartey, 2008). In infants as well, there is

Global nutrition and food security 7
a high demand of nutrition as they are at the peak age for growth and development (Lartey,
2008).
Research in the Sub-Saharan African population has observed that there is a greater
vulnerability to malnutrition amongst the women and children of these regions due to the
climatic and environmental factors of the region (Lartey, 2008). The children and the women
of these regions, there are several economic challenges that result in deficient statuses of
nutrition (Lartey, 2008). Literature has several studies that indicate the connection between
the economic and financial statuses of households (Gillespie & Bold, 2017). The interplay of
social, economic, and urban lifestyle factors with the presence of dual-burden households is
an important indicator of the national nutritional status (Lartey, 2008).
Research indicates that the Sub-Saharan African region is prone to the highest number of
cases of malnutrition, primarily due to poverty, deficient food systems, and lack of resources
(Fanzo, 2012). Limitations in resources and the absence of essential infrastructure
additionally pose the risk of several diseases and epidemics. The people of these regions lack
adequate access to efficient health care centres (Fanzo, 2012).
Africa, despite these challenges in nutrition and resource-availability, has managed to make
remarkable progress in the management of the pandemic of malnutrition. The interventions
that are most essential in these regions, few of which are being practiced include the
promotion of health and nutrition by focusing on consumption of traditional food systems and
practices in the region (Fanzo, 2012).
The primary focus of the intervention for malnutrition in the Sub-Saharan African region is to
spread awareness about the importance of nutrition and the development and growth in the
human system (Fanzo, 2012). The physiological basis of nutrition as a critical factor for
growth and development has to be promoted. The intervention has an additional and

Global nutrition and food security 8
important focus on the preservation of conventional food practices of the African population.
The intervention further aims to promote hygiene and optimal practices for child feeding
(Fanzo, 2012).
An essential goal of the intervention is to lay emphasis on the agricultural and food
production systems of the nation (Fanzo, 2012). One of the most crucial reasons for the
presence of dual-burden is the nutrition transition that has occurred in most nations (Fanzo,
2012). The advent of the Western habits of food intake have led to the concerns of nutrition
transition due to which the production of food in the regional locations has greatly altered
owing to the modified demands (Fanzo, 2012). In the Sub-Saharan region, poverty and lack
of micronutrients for children and food for adults is identified as a major factor for the
occurrence of malnutritional pandemics (Fanzo, 2012).
Therefore, the intervention primarily addresses the nutrition transition and absence of
conventional food systems in this region. The promotion of the supply of micronutrients to
infants stems from the improvement of agricultural and food production patterns (Fanzo,
2012). Stunting and malnutrition are greatly connected to the lack of hygiene, health
awareness, supply of micronutrients for feeding mothers and children, food fortification
techniques, and acute absence of feeding in therapeutic interventions, according to the Lancet
series on undernutrition in 2008(Fanzo, 2012).
The food industry greatly contributes to the success of the interventions that target the
eradication of malnutrition in the Sub-Saharan regions. The core interventions that need to be
practiced in these regions are required to be based on the evidence collected in these regions
(Fanzo, 2012). The recommendations made by Lancet studies in 2008 additionally emphasise
an approach that is multi-sectoral and the incorporation of interventions that are sensitive to
nutritional demands (Fanzo, 2012). The various sectors that comprise the interventional

Global nutrition and food security 9
approach include the agriculture sector, social and health sector, education, agriculture, and
the industry of food production (Fanzo, 2012).The industry of food is a critical sector for the
adequate addressing of nutritional pandemics (Fanzo, 2012).
The intervention must essentially include the following strategies:
 Integration of farming techniques and systems that exploit the combination of
aquamarine culture, horticulture, and rearing of poultry and livestock – all of which
constitute consumable nutritional systems. These systems need to combine and
incorporate techniques of reducing wastage and cost-cutting strategies for inputs in
the agriculture industry in order to enhance the diversity of products in the food
industry (Fanzo, 2012).
 The communication systems that constitute the spreading of awareness and education
about the various aspects of nutrition and marketing strategies for food products.
These marketing interventions need to focus on strengthening the systems of local
food production and the promotion of the extent of consumption and cultivation of
foods that are rich in local micronutrients (Fanzo, 2012).
 The improvement of the techniques for the management of improved techniques for
products obtained after harvest. These strategies incorporate the storage, food
handling, transformation and production, and processing of food products. These
strategies contribute to the decrease in the loss of nutrients and the quality of the
products and their content that focus on the protection of the safety of products
(Fanzo, 2012).
 The interventions for the development of economic and business in order to enhance
employment opportunities for women that help eradicate poverty or lack of resources

Global nutrition and food security 10
 Improvement in the financial and health statuses of women in order to help children
as well
 Easy access to various health services, antenatal care, reduction of workload for
pregnant women and new mothers, nutritional services etc
 Improved facilities for maternal nutrition, education, immunizations and vaccinations,
general health services, and financial secutrity
 Safe food and water for consumption and improved hygiene and health in the general
communities
The afore-mentioned interventions primarily aim to eradicate the reasons that are identified
for the dual-burden malnutrition pandemic.

Global nutrition and food security 11
References:
Fanzo, J (2012). The Nutrition Challenge in Sub-Saharan Africa. Working paper, United
Nations development programme, Regional Bureau of Africa. Retrieved from
https://ideas.repec.org/p/rac/wpaper/2012-012.html
Gillespie, S. & Bold, M.V.D. (2017). Agriculture, Food Systems, and Nutrition: Meeting the
Challenge. Global challenges, 1(3) Retrieved from
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/gch2.201600002/full
El-Kassas, G. & Ziade, F. (2017). The Dual Burden of Malnutrition and Associated Dietary
and Lifestyle Habits among Lebanese School Age Children Living in Orphanages in
North Lebanon. Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism, 1-12 Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315507879_The_Dual_Burden_of_Malnutri
tion_and_Associated_Dietary_and_Lifestyle_Habits_among_Lebanese_School_Age_
Children_Living_in_Orphanages_in_North_Lebanon
De Onis, M. & Blossner, M. (2000). Prevalence and Trends of Overweight among Preschool
Children in Developing Countries. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 72, 1032-
1039. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/nutgrowthdb/publications/overweight/en/
Doak, C.M., Adair, L.S., Bentley, M., Monteiro, C., & Popkin, B.M. (2005). The dual burden
household and the nutrition transition paradox. Int J Obes, 29(1), 129-36 Retrieved
from http://www.nature.com/ijo/journal/v29/n1/full/0802824a.html?
foxtrotcallback=true
Lartey, A. (2008). Maternal and child nutrition in Sub-Saharan Africa: challenges and
interventions. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 67, 105–108 Retrieved from

Global nutrition and food security 12
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5618065_Maternal_and_child_nutrition_in_
Sub-Saharan_Africa_Challenges_and_interventions
Popkin, B.M., Adair, L.S., & Ng, S.W. (2012). NOW AND THEN: The Global Nutrition
Transition: The Pandemic of Obesity in Developing Countries. Nutr Rev., 70(1), 3–
21
Retrieved from http://www.oalib.com/references/9095145
Kolcˇic, I. (2012). Double burden of malnutrition: A silent driver of double burden of disease
in low– and middle–income countries. Jogh, 2(2), 1-6 Retrieved from
http://www.jogh.org/documents/issue201202/7-Vewpoint%20Kolcic.pdf
Caballero, B. (2005). A Nutrition Paradox — Underweight and Obesity in Developing
Countries. N engl j med., 352(15), 1514-1516 Retrieved from
http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp048310
Varela-Silva, M.I. et al. (2012). Nutritional Dual-Burden in Developing Countries. Coll.
Antropol., 36(1), 39–45 Retrieved from
http://www.academia.edu/3820203/The_Nutritional_Dual-
Burden_in_Developing_Countries_How_is_it_Assessed_and_What_Are_the_Health_
Implications
Guyomard, H., Darcy-Vrillon, B., Esnouf, C., Marin, M., Russel, M., & Guillou, M. (2012)
Eating patterns and food systems: critical knowledge requirements for policy design
and implementation. Agriculture & Food Security, 1(13), 1-21 Retrieved from
https://www.gov.uk/dfid-research-outputs/eating-patterns-and-food-systems-critical-
knowledge-requirements-for-policy-design-and-implementation

Global nutrition and food security 13
Hotz, C. & Gibson, R.S. (2007). Traditional food-processing and preparation practices to
enhance the bioavailability of micronutrients in plant-based diet. J Nutr, 137(4),
1097-1100. Retrieved from http://jn.nutrition.org/content/137/4/1097.short
Cohen, M., Rocchigiani, M. & Garrett, J. (2008). Empowering Communities Through Food-
Based Programmes: Ethiopia Case Study, in Discussion Paper. International Food
Policy Research Institute Washington DC.
De Onis, M., Blössner, M. & Borghi, E. (2012). Prevalence and trends of stunting among
pre-school children, 1990–2020. Public Health Nutrition, 15(1), 142–148 Retrieved
from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21752311
Dubuisson-Quellier, S. (2010). From consumerism to the empowerment of consumers: the
case of consumer oriented movements in France. Sustainability, 2, 1849–1868.
Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/45267278_From_Consumerism_to_the_Em
powerment_of_Consumers_The_Case_of_Consumer_Oriented_Movements_in_Franc
e
Lloyd-Williams F., O’Flaherty, M., Mwatsama, M., Birt, C., Ireland, R., & Capewell, S.
(2008). Estimating the cardiovascular mortality burden attributable to the Common
Agricultural Policy on dietary saturated fats. Bull World Health Org, 86, 535–542
Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18670665
Leibtag, E. (2008). Corn prices near record high, but what about food costs? Amber Waves,
6, 10–15 Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/43262829_Corn_Prices_Near_Record_High
_But_What_About_Food_Costs

Global nutrition and food security 14
Hajkowicz, S., Negra, C., Barnett, P., Clark, M., Harch, B., & Keating, B. (2012). Food price
volatility and hunger alleviation - can Cannes work? Agric Food Secur, 1, 8
Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257884772_Food_price_volatility_and_hun
ger_alleviation_-_can_Cannes_work
Inagami, S., Cohen, D. A., Brown, A., & Asch, M. (2009). Body mass index, neighbourhood
fast food and restaurant concentration, and car ownership. J Urban Health, 86, 683–
695 Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26298527_Body_Mass_Index_Neighborhoo
d_Fast_Food_and_Restaurant_Concentration_and_Car_Ownership
Hajkowicz, S., Negra, C., Barnett, P., Clark, M., Harch, B., & Keating, B. (2012). Food price
volatility and hunger alleviation - can Cannes work? Agric Food Secur, 1, 8.
Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257884772_Food_price_volatility_and_hun
ger_alleviation_-_can_Cannes_work