Anatomy and Physiology: Body Systems, Functions, and Routine Measures

This report provides a detailed overview of human anatomy and physiology, covering various body systems such as the digestive, circulatory, respiratory, excretory, nervous, integumentary, reproductive, skeletal, muscular, endocrine, and lymphatic systems. It explains the main anatomical features and functions of each system, along with cellular metabolism and the role of growth hormone. The report also examines normal body responses to everyday activities like breathing, cellular and tissue responses in a given case scenario, and the coordination of internal activities. Furthermore, it discusses routine measures recorded in healthcare, their uses, and how they inform care planning, including the impact of age and conditions like diabetes and arthritis on body structure and function. This assignment solution is available on Desklib, where students can find more solved assignments and resources.

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................................................2
LO1.................................................................................................................................................................................. 4
1.1 MAIN ANATOMICAL FEATURES IN EACH BODY SYSTEMS......................................................................................4
1.2 CELLULAR METABOLISM AND ROLE OF GROWTH HORMONE...............................................................................8
LO2................................................................................................................................................................................ 11
2.1 NORMAL BODY RESPONSES TO EVERYDAY ACTIVITY SUCH AS BREATHING........................................................11
2.2 BODY RESPONSE TO CELLULAR AND TISSUE STRUCTURES AND ITS RELATED PHYSIOLOGY ACCORDING TO
GIVEN CASE SCENARIO..............................................................................................................................................12
2.3 COORDINATION OF BODY WITH ITS INTERNAL ACTIVITY....................................................................................13
L03................................................................................................................................................................................. 16
3.1 EXPLAIN HOW ROUTINE MEASURES ARE RECORDED AND WHAT ARE THEIR USES IN HEALTH AND SOCIAL
CARE?........................................................................................................................................................................ 16
3.2 ASSESS HOW THESE ROUTINE MEASURES PROVIDE THE GP WITH INFORMATION ABOUT THE BODY
FUNCTIONING OF THIS PERSON................................................................................................................................17
3.3 EXAMINE HOW SUCH INFORMATION ABOUT THE BODY FUNCTIONING MAY INFORM CARE PLANNING FOR
THIS PERSON.............................................................................................................................................................18
L04................................................................................................................................................................................. 19
4.1 AFFECT OF AGE ON BODY STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONING (RELATING NERVOUS SYSTEM AND RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM) OF TYPE 2 DIABETIC PATIENT.....................................................................................................................19
4.2 IMPACT OF DIABETES ON BODY STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION IN GIVEN CASE STUDY.........................................19
4.3 EFFECT OF MEDICAL CONDITIONS I.E. DIABETES AND ARTHRITIS INCLUDING INFECTION TO ROUTINE CARE. . .20
CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................................................................21
REFERENCES..................................................................................................................................................................22

INTRODUCTION
Human body is the set of anatomical and anthropological body structure containing multiple systems
working together in coordinated manner to form life. It consist of basic units i.e. cells which together form
tissues and then the organ system. Study of human body includes its anatomy, physiology, embryology and
histology. This article deals with various anatomical structures and cellular metabolism. Further it explains
the role of growth hormone in metabolism and growth process. Then it includes response of body in
routine activities and in working situation. In addition this article also explains effect of hypertension and
diabetes on physical and mental health status of patients.

LO1
1.1 MAIN ANATOMICAL FEATURES IN EACH BODY SYSTEMS
Different specialized tissue together forms organs which coordinate and result into organ system. In other
words, organ system can be defined as group of different anatomical structures that aim together to
perform common function or task (standaring, 2015). Our body consist of around 11 such systems which
are as follows:
Digestive system: it comprises of pharynx or mouth (includes tongue, teeth, salivary gland, taste buds,
maxilla, mandible), oesophagus or food pipe, stomach, pancreas, spleen, gall bladder, small intestine, large
intestine, rectum, anus
Circulatory system: this consist of heart, blood and blood vessels such as superior and inferior vena cava,
aorta etc
Respiratory system: this system includes nose, pharynx (mouth), larynx (throat), trachea or windpipe,
bronchi and bronchioles, diaphragm
Excretory system: this system involves kidney (consist of three layers i.e. renal cortex, medulla and pelvis) ,
renal vessels, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra
Nervous system: this system comprises of brain, spinal cord, somatic nerves, autonomic nerves (or
voluntary and involuntary nerves) and it also includes all sense organs such as vision, smell, taste and touch
Integumentory system: this system consist of hairs, skin, nails and subcutaneous fats
Reproductive system or genital system: consist of male reproductive organ such as testes, scrotum,
epididymes, seminal vesicles, vas deferens, prostate, penis, urethra, Cowper’s gland. It also includes female
reproductive system such as vulva, vagina, uterus, ovaries, clitoris, urethra, cervix, labia, and fallopian
tubes
Skeletal system: this includes bones, joints, cartilages, tendons and ligaments
Muscular system: this includes skeletal muscles but cardiac and smooth muscles are not included in this
system
Endocrine system: it comprises of different glands such as pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal gland etc
Lymphatic system: this system comprises of lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes

Some studies consider immune system and neuro transmitter system as part of the organ system; this
makes it a total of 13 organ systems regulating different functions of body in coordination (Agur and dalley,
2009).
Cardiovascular system or circulatory system is a system that permits circulation of its one of the
component throughout body i.e. blood. Major functions of this system can be listed as:
It helps in transportation of oxygenated blood from lungs to heart and to whole body parts via aorta and
other blood vessels. This system also collects deoxygenated blood from all the body parts back to heart for
oxygenation via superior and inferior vena cava. From heart deoxygenated blood is carried to lungs for
purification or oxygenation. As blood is an important component of this circulatory network it plays an
important role in transportation of various nutrients across the body; which lists as one of the functions of
this system. Red blood cells also contribute by carrying oxygen from lungs to different body cells and also
carbon dioxide from different cells to lungs for purification of blood. Similarly, one of the waste product i.e.
urea is carried from liver to kidneys for excretion. This system also helps in transport of soluble form of
food which are easily absorbed from small intestine and assimilated by the body. It also helps hormones
secreted by various endocrine glands to reach their target site (Stanfield, 2012). Water is also transported
to the cells to perform various biochemical processes with the help of this network. This system leads with
a major role of maintaining homeostasis through various actions such as regulating pressure and
temperature changes across cell membrane maintaining internal environment. One of the parts of vascular
system is lymphatic system which is also an important aspect of our immune system. This system helps in
elimination of interstitial fluid from tissues, removes fats and fatty acid as chyle from gastro intestinal tract.
White blood cells, our defence cells are transported from lymph nodes so as to fight against infections.

Respiratory system is one of the important biological systems which perform and regulate many important
functions of human body which are as follows:
Every cells of our living body require oxygen for functioning normally; it is the respiratory system where
gaseous exchange takes place. To start with, the entry and exist point of gases i.e. nose or nostrils helps in
purifying air which we breathe by removing dust and other particles. This action is completed by mucous
membrane and cilia present in the inner linings of nose. Similarly during exhalation it absorbs moisture
from air leaving our body. In cases of blocked nose our mouth helps in inhalation. Inhaled air through
larynx reaches our windpipe or trachea. Mucous secreting glands i.e. goblet cells are present in trachea
that helps in purifying air while its way. Around twenty cartilaginous tracheal rings present help in
maintaining anatomy of trachea. Tracheal rings and smooth muscles present in bronchioles helps in
regulating and maintain airflow in case of increased demand. Finally inhaled air through bronchioles enters
the basic structure of this system where actual gaseous exchange takes place i.e. the alveoli. So the main
function of this system to provide oxygen to each cell and remove carbon dioxide in return is performed.
This also helps in maintaining homeostasis by regulating gaseous exchange (lonescu, 2013). It also removes
any gas bubbles on its way preventing our body from embolism. Thoracic cavity or lung cavity in
combination with musculoskeletal system encloses vital organs such as lungs and heart and protect them
from any damage. Pleural cavity present helps in maintain the integrity of lungs while expansion.
Diaphragm plays a very important role. Apart from separating this system from abdominal cavity it
contracts and flattens at base pulling in the rib cage during inhalation. This creates vacuum and air rushes
into our lungs. While during exhalation it relax and gain its dome shape back so as to expel carbon dioxide
rich air from our body (Lumb, 2016).

One of the crucial systems of our body is excretory system. As the name signifies it helps in elimination of
waste products thus removes toxic substances such as urea and ammonia from our body. It regulates fluid
balance of body by absorption of water as required. This also helps in maintaining electrolytes equilibrium
and maintains required ph. In case of increased water loss such as perspiration and intake of salty food
urine concentration is enhanced; maintaining required osmolality. Our kidney also secrete hormone
named as erythropoietin which induces bone marrow to produce more red blood cells (Bradley, 2013).

1.2 CELLULAR METABOLISM AND ROLE OF GROWTH HORMONE
Metabolism is a Greek word meaning ‘change’. Cellular metabolism can be defined as set of chemical
transformation which takes place within cells of organism required for sustaining life. Three main motive
behind cellular metabolism is conversion of food to energy, conversion of food to form basic building
blocks of life i.e. lipids, nucleic acid and proteins and formation of excretory waste products. Cellular
metabolism can broadly be categorised as catabolism and anabolism. Breakdown of organic substances
such as glucose into simple absorbable form say pyruvate is considered as catabolic process whereas
building together of different cellular components such as nucleic acid and proteins is considered as
anabolic process. Anabolism consumes energy while catabolism releases energy.
Growth hormone or human growth hormone or somatotropins is master regulator peptide hormone. This
hormone is secreted by somatotropic cells present in lateral wings of pituitary gland. Mostly role of this
hormone is anabolic in nature i.e. building up. It is considered as master regulator hormone for growth. It
also play role in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism with the help of complex biochemical interactions with
insulin and insulin like growth factors. Studies have shown that this hormone stimulates hepatic glucose
production via gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis. It also play role in liver lipid metabolism (particularly
lipolysis). This hormone basically helps in overall growth and development of human body (Canalis et al.,
2012). Deficiency of this hormone relates to growth failure in children and lead to dwarfism whereas it’s
over production causes excessive growth called as gigantism. Growth hormone deficiency is related to
depression and impaired cognative functions as well. Use this hormone is believed to be used as
therapeutic measure approved by FDA. It shows some side effects such as joint swelling, joint pain,
increased risk of diabetes etc. In some cases, our immune system may respond to growth hormone.

LO2
2.1 NORMAL BODY RESPONSES TO EVERYDAY ACTIVITY SUCH AS BREATHING
In routine our body remains in functional state because of all the metabolic activities performed by
different organs in coordinate manner to meets to meet daily requirements. Out of all activities breathing
is the most important physiological activity which helps in inhalation of oxygen and exhalation of carbon
dioxide. When we inhale diaphragm contracts along with intercostals muscles and flatten pulling up the rib
cage increasing thoracic cavity and creating lower pressure in lungs as compared to atmospheric pressure.
As known air flows from area of high pressure to low pressure; air rushes into lungs via upper respiratory
tract. Gaseous exchange takes place at alveoli which is surrounded by thin capillaries carrying
deoxygenated blood from heart through pulmonary arteries. This artery branches into arterioles then into
fine alveolar capillary network. Oxygen is diffused from alveoli into blood whereas carbon dioxide and
other waste products are taken back by alveolus which is eliminated from body by exhalation process. This
oxygenated blood travels back to heart via pulmonary veins from where blood is supplied to all body parts.
During exhalation diaphragm relax and regain its dome shape expelling air from lungs (Harper et al., 2013).
Now, oxygen which is diffused into blood is carried by haemoglobin present in blood to different cells for
formation of ATP (energy source) via aorta (main blood vessel of heart).
This action is continuous, involuntary and autonomous in nature which is under the control of respiratory
centre present in brain stem. There are various chemoreceptor and baroreceptors found in aorta and other
vessels. These receptors send in the signals to respiratory centre which then signals to increase or decrease
respiratory output. Centre for behavioural or voluntary control of breathing is present in cortex of brain.
These are of shorter span and can be seen during singing, speaking, playing instruments or under
emotional distress condition (deberardinis and Thompson, 2012).

2.2 BODY RESPONSE TO CELLULAR AND TISSUE STRUCTURES AND ITS RELATED
PHYSIOLOGY ACCORDING TO GIVEN CASE SCENARIO
In given case scenario, twenty five years old boy is full time college going student who attends his classes
regularly from 10 AM till 5 PM in evening. During initial phase when he would have started with class his
body was not use to such situation. Accordingly body demand more energy so as to meet extra
requirement for proper functioning; with time our body adapts to situations. Food which is ingested is
digested into simpler soluble products by our digestive system with the help of various enzymes. These
simpler products and nutrients are then absorbed by small intestine primarily and carried away by blood to
each cellular structure for metabolism. At this cellular level, organic molecules are broken down to form
ATP which is the energy source to perform all metabolic functions. Different cells together form tissues and
various tissue clubbed in together to form organ specialized for different functions. Now during adaptive
phase of our body, different tissues in organs respond differently. It takes physiological process into
consideration as well. Muscles of our respiratory, cardiac and skeletal system activates because of
vasodilatation. Cutaneous tissue vassodilation increases contractility of heart to pump in more blood. This
helps in meeting up increased oxygen demand of student; as oxygen supply to his brain will keep his mind
attentive during classes. Carbon dioxide and other toxic waste products which are produced by cells are
regularly removed through respiratory and excretory systems. This helps in maintaining homeostasis of our
body and also in regulating body’s temperature. Regular exercise will help him in strengthening his muscles
so as to build up stamina to attend his classes regularly and attentively.

2.3 COORDINATION OF BODY WITH ITS INTERNAL ACTIVITY
Internal activity or in other words body’s homeostatic condition is maintaining internal environment of
body with continuous biochemical reactions in progress and also with change in internal or external
conditions. Generally in this condition all the requirement of body is fulfilled and is functioning at its
normal pace. In case there are changes in external or internal conditions there are positive and negative
feedback control mechanism which help to adapt various altering conditions. . Even at rest body is
constantly performing internal activities to maintain homeostatic conditions. In general a particular
stimulus brings about change in external environment which is detected by receptors and the information
travels to control centre in brain via afferent pathway. Brain then commands respectively; information of
which is carried by efferent pathway to target site. Say for instance, in cold climatic conditions,
temperature of our body is not in equilibrium with outside temperature. To maintain homeostatic
condition multiple system works in coordination and body respond as shivering, develop goose bumps etc
(Kotas and medzhitov, 2015).
Say during extra stressful activities such as exercise or in situation mentioned in case study (mind stress),
oxygen demand of body increases, and an individual start breathing at faster pace to meet oxygen
demand. Even heart also pumps blood faster and harder to supply oxygen rich blood to every cell and
eliminate carbon dioxide and other waste products. The cells produce more ATP and also uses stored ATP
to enhance energy supply required for normal functioning. To attain homeostatic condition feedback
mechanisms (positive or negative) play a major role. In positive feedback, changes towards particular
stimulus lead to additional changes in same direction e.g. Labour pain whereas in negative feedback
change towards specific condition in a direction causes changes in opposite direction e.g. diabetic
situations or thermal regulation. Sometimes positive feedback mechanism detoriates health conditions and
is life threatening. In this regards, fall in blood pressure stimulates heart to pump more blood increasing
heart rate. This causes increase in oxygen demand of heart itself. But due to low BP overall blood volume is
less resulting in low blood supply to heart which actually damage heart; reason being imbalance between
oxygen demand and supply. This in turn affects functioning of heart and it pumps less amount of blood
which further lowers blood pressure. This feedback loop continuously keeps on stimulating heart to
increase blood volume which instead continues to detoriate in response and the loop goes on until death.