Design and Analysis of Foundations for High-Rise Buildings

This report provides a detailed overview of the design of foundations for high-rise buildings. It begins with an introduction to the characteristics of high-rise structures and their increasing prevalence due to urbanization. The report then delves into the factors influencing foundation design, including design forces/loads (wind, seismic, and vertical), soil types, water table levels, ground contamination, and the presence of adjoining structures. Common foundation types, such as raft foundations, pile foundations, and piled raft foundations, are discussed. The report also explores design approaches, including ultimate limit state (ULS) and serviceability limit state (SLS) design, and outlines the foundation design process. It addresses design issues, challenges, and includes a case study to illustrate practical applications. The report emphasizes the importance of geotechnical investigations to determine soil properties and the use of methods like the substructure and direct analysis methods to evaluate soil-structure interaction. The document concludes by highlighting the crucial role of properly designed foundations in ensuring the structural integrity, stability, safety, and durability of high-rise buildings.

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 1
DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS OF HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS
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Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 2
Table of Contents
1. Introduction.......................................................................................................................................3
2. Background........................................................................................................................................5
3. Factors influencing design of high-rise buildings foundations.......................................................6
3.1. Design forces/loads......................................................................................................................6
3.2. Soil types.....................................................................................................................................8
3.3. Level of water table...................................................................................................................12
3.4. Ground contamination...............................................................................................................12
3.5. Type of adjoining structures......................................................................................................13
4. Common types of foundations for high-rise buildings..................................................................13
4.1. Raft foundation..........................................................................................................................13
4.2. Pile foundations.........................................................................................................................14
4.3. Piled raft foundation..................................................................................................................17
5. Design approaches...........................................................................................................................20
5.1. Ultimate limit state (ULS) design approach...............................................................................20
5.2. Serviceability limit state (SLS) design approach.......................................................................21
6. Foundation design process..............................................................................................................22
7. Design issues.....................................................................................................................................26
8. Challenges in design of foundations of high-rise buildings...........................................................27
9. Case study........................................................................................................................................29
10. Conclusions..................................................................................................................................34
References................................................................................................................................................36

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 3
1. Introduction
This report presents analysis of different aspects of design of foundations of high-rise buildings.
The key characteristics of high-rise buildings are: they have several numbers of storeys that
necessitate use of mechanical vertical transportation system (such as lifts or elevators for
occupants to reach their destination), their height have consequential effect on evacuation, and
their total height cannot be fully reached by available fire-fighting equipment. These buildings
are typically considered to have more than seven storeys or a height greater than 23 meters. The
high-rise buildings have become very common in many cities across the world due to rapid
urbanization, industrial development and urban population growth. Public and private developers
have preferred high-rise buildings because they maximize land use especially in urban areas.
These buildings are usually designed for multiple uses – office, mixed-use, residential and hotel
(Figure 1 below shows uses of 100 tallest buildings in the world) and therefore have to withstand
a wide range of lateral and vertical forces. The forces must be supported by strong foundations,
which distribute the forces to the ground. Therefore the stability and safety of high-rise buildings
largely depend on their foundations.

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 4
Figure 1: Uses of 100 tallest buildings in the world (Kayvani, 2015)
Foundation is the lowest part of the building that transmits all loads of the building to the
ground (Poulos, 2017). The foundation connects the building with the ground and is in direct
contact with soil. The main functions of foundations of high-rise buildings include: ensuring
even distribution of the load, minimizing the load intensity, providing a level surface on which
the superstructure is constructed, providing lateral stability of the building, anchoring the
building against natural forces like earthquakes, protecting the building against undermining, and
protecting the building against ground moisture and soil movements (Ajdukiewicz, et al., 2017).
Design of foundations is very essential for any building (Nangan, et al., 2017), but it is more
critical for high-rise buildings because of the height of these buildings, the numerous forces
acting on them and their large number of occupants. These buildings are exposed to both
dynamic loads and static loads (Hallebrand & Jakobsson, 2016). The design of foundations of
high-rise buildings entails determining the most suitable type and size of foundation and its
materials. Therefore a properly designed foundation of a high-rise building improves the
structural integrity, stability, safety and durability of the building.
The main purpose of this report is to provide the suitable criteria for the design of
adequate foundations of high-rise buildings. The other sections of this report are: background,
factors influencing the design of foundations of high-rise buildings, common types of
foundations for high-rise buildings, design approaches, foundation design process, design issues,
challenges in the design of foundations of high-rise buildings, case study and conclusion.

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 5
2. Background
Construction of the first generation of high-rise buildings started in New York and Chicago in
the late 19th century. These cities experienced explosive growth and adequate land was not
available to meet the increasing demand for new buildings. As a result, builders had only one
option – to start building up (vertical buildings). The 12-storey Home Insurance Building that
was built by William Le Baron Jenney in 1884 is believed to be the first high-rise building of the
industrial era (Nicholson-Cole, 2016). Since then, high-rise buildings have become very common
in urban areas where rapid urban population growth and increased land prices have created a
high demand for commercial and residential buildings. As a result, high-rise buildings have
become more suitable and the commonest feature of architectural landscape in most urban areas
worldwide because they occupy less land area.
Some of the high-rise buildings in the world include: Burj Khalifa (828m), Shanghai
Tower (632m), Makkah Clock Tower (601m), Lotte World Tower (555m) and One World Trade
Center (541.3m). The 1,000m-tall Jeddah Tower that is under construction in Jeddah, Saudi
Arabia is expected to become the world’s tallest building once completed in 2020. Figure 2
below shows the height and timeline of high-rise buildings in the world. One common feature
among high-rise buildings is that they have strong foundations. New foundation designs is one of
the factors that have enabled architects to design very tall buildings. The high-rise buildings’
foundations support very heavy loads. Typically, low-rise buildings’ foundation systems are used
for high-rise building foundations but on an enlarged scale. The foundations of high-rise
buildings are usually wide and deep. For example, the foundation of Burj Khalifa features a 3.7m
thick raft and 194 1.5m-diameter and 45m long concrete piles.

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 6
Figure 2: Height and timeline of high-rise buildings (Kayvani, 2015)
Therefore since the foundation is the one that carries the weight of the whole building, it is the
most important part of a high-rise building and must be designed properly.
3. Factors influencing design of high-rise buildings foundations
Below are some of the factors that influence the design of foundations of high-rise buildings:
3.1. Design forces/loads
Design forces or loads largely influence the design of foundations of high-rise buildings. The
design of high-rise buildings foundations is more complicated than that of mid-rise or low-rise
buildings because of the increase in height. Both lateral (horizontal) and vertical (downward)
forces are imposed on high-rise buildings. The most common lateral forces include: wind load,
earth and water pressure, and seismic load (Aly & Abburu, 2015). Wind load is a major concern
for high-rise buildings because wind load increases with an increase in height of the building
(Mittal, et al., 2014). Figure 3 below shows an increase in wind load with the increasing height
of a high-rise building. Seismic loads are imposed on the building during an earthquake. High-

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 7
rise buildings are more vulnerable to earthquakes because of their excessive heights, low
structural damping, and use of lightweight materials for inner partition walls and the super
structure (Jayasinghe & Weerasuriya, 2014), hence their foundations should be designed by
considering seismic forces. Water/fluid pressure is proportional to liquid density and increases
linearly with depth. Earth/soil pressure is imposed on the substructure of the high-rise building,
including its foundation. Examples of vertical loads are: dead loads, live/imposed loads, snow
loads and other special loads (erection loads, impact, fatigue, foundation movement, vibration
and elastic axial shortening).
Figure 3: Wind load acting on a high-rise building (Daemei, et al., 2019)
The design forces are essential for the design of foundations of high-rise buildings
because they are all distributed to the ground via the foundation, as shown in Figure 4 below.
Engineers, architects and designers are using new design concepts, advanced designing methods
and tools, and new trends to reduce design loads (Sharma, et al., 2017), which also reduces the
size and cost of foundations of high-rise buildings. One such technique is use of spiral forming
and curved façade to reduce wind load, like it is the case for Shanghai Tower (Zhaoa, et al.,
2011). It is important to create 3D models of high-rise buildings during design stage so as to

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 8
accurately predict design loads that will be supported by the foundation. This helps in
determining the most suitable type, size and construction materials of foundations of the high-
rise building.
Figure 4: Distribution of deign loads (Mishra, 2015)
Therefore appropriate methods should be used to estimate all types of loads acting on the
building from all directions, including live loads and dead loads (both the gravity loads and uplift
loads). Some of the factors that influence the quantity of design loads of the building are: type of
building structure, location of the building, material of construction, and number of floors. These
loads are the ones that act on the foundation hence should be considered as a key factor when
designing foundations of high-rise buildings.
3.2. Soil types
The type of soil can either break or make the foundation of a high-rise building. This is
because the interaction between the soil and the building affects the dynamic characteristics of
high-rise buildings (Li, et al., 2014). Some soils tend to deform when subjected to loadings and
with temperature variations. This deformation can cause settlement of the foundation thus
affecting the stability of the building. Loam, gravel, sand and rock are foundation-friendly soils

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 9
whereas clay, silt and peat are bad options since they can cause development of cracks in the
foundation. Soils have different capacities to absorb water and generate earth pressure (through
expansion when temperature increases) that is imposed on the foundation. If the foundation is
not strong enough, the earth pressure can cause stresses that lift up the building. The soil also
provides the ground over which the foundation rests. If the soil or ground is non-uniform,
differential settlement can occur resulting to cracks and tipping of the building, as shown in
Figure 5 below. There are also different layers of soil. In most cases, weak soil layers are on top
while strong layers are at the bottom. The foundation of high-rise buildings must reach the strong
soil layer, as shown in Figure 6 below. This means that the foundation has to be deep enough to
pass through the weak layer until it reaches the strong layer where it safely transmits or
distributes the load to the soil/ground.
Figure 5: Settlement of the building (Mishra, 2015)

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 10
Figure 6: Foundation driven to the strong soil (Amornfa, et al., 2012); (Understand Building
Construction, (n.d.))
When designing foundations of high-rise buildings, relevant geotechnical investigation
must be conducted so as to determine the conditions of the soil. The geotechnical investigation
entails safety analysis against overturning, sliding, buoyancy, base failure, settlements and
displacements (Katzenbach, et al., 2016). This will determine the bearing capacity of the soil,
which helps in selecting the most suitable type of foundation design, materials and construction
method. The geotechnical investigation should include in-situ soil testing, borehole drilling, and
multiple laboratory tests. All these helps to determine the stiffness and strength properties of the
soil. The soil frost line’s depth should also be determined from the geotechnical investigation so
that the soil can be improved so as to reduce the swelling effect. The properties of soil can then
be used to develop a geotechnical model of the site that is used to determine the appropriate
design parameters of the foundation. The geotechnical model should incorporate the soil-
structure interaction effect (Pitilakis & Clouteau, 2010); (Samali, et al., 2014). This interaction
has a significant effect on the performance of high-rise buildings foundations (Farghaly &
Ahmed, 2013). The soil-structure interaction effect can be evaluated using two categories of

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 11
numerical approaches: substructure method and direct analysis method. In substructure method,
several springs are integrated to epitomize the foundation of the building and the adjacent soil, as
shown in Figure 7 below (Li, et al., 2014). In direct analysis method, a model is developed
combining the building, foundation and soil, and then examined as an integrated system, as
shown in Figure 8 below. This method can be used to examine the extensive response and
damage of the foundation, soil and superstructure when the building is subjected to earthquakes.
Figure 7: Substructure method (Li, et al., 2014)
Figure 8: Direct analysis method (Li, et al., 2014)

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 12
The key geotechnical design parameters for high-rise building foundations are: ultimate
skin friction, end bearing resistance, lateral soil pressure, soil bearing capacity and stiffness.
These parameters should been comprehensively analyzed so as to determine the accurate soil-
structure interaction. Some of the methods that can be used for this analysis include: analytical
methods (p-y approach, Winkler method and elastic continuum method), numerical approach
(finite different approach, finite element approach and boundary element approach), and half-
space theory-based methods (direct method and indirect method) (Verma, et al., 2018).
3.3. Level of water table
A raised water table can cause the building to float thus tilting it or making it unstable,
reduce effective pressure that results to excessive settlement of the building, and create a wet
basement. On the other hand, a lowered water table has a tendency of increasing the effective
pressure thus causing extra settlements. When the water table is high, it means that the
foundation will be in a waterlogged area. This is not the best area to construct a foundation of a
high-rise building because the water will affect the construction process and when the foundation
is complete, water will start seeping into it. This weakens the foundation and can eventually
cause the building to collapse.
3.4. Ground contamination
It is also important to consider the contamination level of the ground when designing
foundations of high-rise buildings. This is because different types of contaminants present in the
ground have varied effects on the foundation. Generally, metal foundation members get affected
by corrosion when they are built in contaminated grounds, such as backwater areas, old sanitary
landfills and other old landfills for other pollutants or toxic wastes. Concrete foundations also get
affected by corrosion when located in grounds with sulfates. Samples of the soil should be taken

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 13
from the site and analyzed in the laboratory so as to determine present chemicals or
contaminants. This information is then used to determine the most suitable remedial measures so
as to prevent corrosion of the foundation.
3.5. Type of adjoining structures
It is also important to consider the failure or success of foundations of other similar buildings
within the neighborhood. If there has been a trend of specific types of foundations of high-rise
buildings failing in the area, then it only makes sense to consider alternative foundation designs
for the new building. Nevertheless, the causes of failure must be investigated first. Some of the
probable causes of foundation failure include: poor choice of foundation type, inappropriate
foundation specifications, poor soil conditions, raised water table, and ground contamination.
Additionally, it is important to ensure that the construction works, such as excavation, vibration,
piling and dewatering, of the selected foundation design does not affect the adjoining structures.
4. Common types of foundations for high-rise buildings
It is mandatory to ensure that high-rise buildings are supported on rock-hard foundations.
Suitable bearing surfaces for high-rise buildings are usually at significant depth in the hard soil
strata making deep foundation the only feasible option for adequate foundations of these
buildings (Sousa, et al., 2010). There are multiple foundation options for high-rise buildings. The
common options are discussed below:
4.1. Raft foundation
A raft foundation (also referred to as mat foundation) is a reinforced concrete foundation that
is spread over the whole area of the high-rise building to support loads imposed by the walls and
columns. The raft transmits the load from the walls and columns to the soil (Eldin & El-Helloty,

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 14
2014). Figure 9 below is a schematic diagram of a raft foundation. This foundation prevents
differential settlement but should not be used in sites where the groundwater table is above the
soil’s bearing surface. It is more suitable for expansive soils that have good load bearing
capacity, such as dense gravel and dense sand (Elsawy & El-Garhy, 2016). Raft foundation is the
most economic choice for high-rise buildings in sub-soils with good load-bearing capacity. The
90m-high Main Plaza Tower and the 190m-high Trianon Tower are examples of high-rise
buildings with raft foundations. Settlement of these buildings has remained below 100mm and
their tilting is below 1:800 (Long, 2010).
Figure 9: Schematic diagram of raft foundation (Building How, (n.d))
Advantages of raft foundations include: they are quicker to construct, cheaper, reduce
differential settlement, best for poor ground conditions, better water proofing, improve bearing
capacity, enhance stability and integrity of the building, and are best for members that are
eccentrically loaded.
4.2. Pile foundations
Pile foundation is used to transfer heavy loads from the high-rise building to a hard rock
strata that is at a substantial depth from the ground level, usually 5-50m, as shown in Figure 10

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 15
below. A pile is basically a column made of wood, steel, reinforced concrete, or composite
(Toprak, et al., 2018), but wooden piles are rarely used in foundations of high-rise buildings.
This type of foundation is effective in preventing uplift of the building caused by lateral loads
like wind and earthquake forces. It is most suitable for use when the soil conditions close to the
surface of the ground do not have the capacity to support heavy loads, making shallow mat or
raft foundation system unsuitable (Luo & Dong, 2019). The piles can be single piles or grouped
piles, and are usually located beneath load bearing walls and columns. The group of piles have a
pile cap at the top of the piles. The columns or walls rest on the pile cap.
Figure 10: Schematic diagram of pile foundation (Roy, 2017); (Wei & Yuan, 2013)
Pile foundations resist loads by end bearing and skin friction. The pile foundations also
prevent the foundations from differential settlement. There are three types of pile foundations,
which are dependent on the method of construction, namely: driven pile foundations, cast-in-situ
pile foundations, jacked piles, and a combination of both (Letsios, et al., 2014).

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 16
A pile foundation for high-rise buildings usually consists of numerous piles and hence the
key challenge when designing this kind of a foundation is taking into account the effect of the
piles’ interaction. There is a possibility of the pile group experiencing different settlement
compared to that of a single pile when subjected to the same loading. Also, the maximum load
that a group of piles can support may not be equal to the one supported by the individual pile in
the group. This implies that the group effect must be considered when designing pile foundations
of high-rise buildings. The diagram in Figure 11 below is an illustration of a pile foundation of a
high-rise building.
Figure 11: Illustration of a high-rise building foundation (Hokmabadi, et al., 2014)
Some of the advantages of pile foundations are: can be precast thus reducing construction
time, can be precast into any desired specifications (shape, size and length), can be used in areas
where holes cannot be drilled, and can be used in wetlands. The drawbacks of pile foundations
include: require substantial amount of reinforcement, require adequate pre-planning, heavy

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 17
equipment is needed for driving the piles, not suitable for use in poorly drained soils, and driving
piles generates large vibration forces that can affect adjoining structures.
4.3. Piled raft foundation
Piled raft foundation is basically a combination of raft and pile foundations and it is the
widely used type of foundation for high-rise buildings (Nguyen, et al., 2013). Piled raft
foundation satisfies the settlement and bearing criteria of high-rise buildings. The piled raft
foundation is a composite system of raft foundation and pile foundation thus it significantly
reduces the number of piles by taking into account the contribution that the raft makes to the
overall capacity of the foundation. In this case, the raft provides the load capacity requirement
while the piles provide the required foundation stiffness (Raut, et al., 2014). Figure 12 below is
an illustration of a piled raft foundation of a high-rise building.
Figure 12: Illustration of a typical piled raft foundation (Tekla Structural Designer, (n.d.))
The basic principle of piled raft foundation is that the load from the superstructure is
shared by the raft and the piles, as shown in Figure 13 below. This hybrid foundation uses the

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 18
raft’s higher bearing resistance to prevent bearing capacity failure and the piles’ higher resistance
to prevent differential and total settlements (Ravichandran, et al., 2018). The piles transfer some
portion of the design load to the hard soil strata and the raft also transfers some portion of the
load directly to the soil (Amomfa, et al., 2012); (Tang, et al., 2014). In some cases where a raft
foundation may be used but fails to meet the design requirements (particularly differential
settlement and total settlement requirements), the performance of the raft foundation can be
improved by addition of piles. A few strategically located piles can be used to improve the
foundation’s differential settlement and ultimate load capacity. The most suitable soils for piled
raft foundations are relatively stiff clays and relatively dense sands.
Figure 13: Load distribution of piled raft foundation (Raut, et al., 2014)
Table 1 below shows details of some of the high-rise buildings with piled raft foundations and
the load distribution
Table 1: Examples of high-rise buildings with piled raft foundations
High-rise building Height
(m)
Load share (%) Max. settlement
(mm)Raft Piles
Sony Center, Berlin 103 N/A N/A 30
Treptower, Berlin 121 45 55 73
Messe-Torhaus, Frankfurt 130 25 75 N/A
Skyper, Frankfurt 153 27 63 55
Westend 1, Frankfurt 208 51 49 120

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 19
Messeturn, Frankfurt 256 43 57 144
Commerzbank, Frankfurt 300 4 96 19
Petronas, Kuala Lampur 450 15 85 40
ICC, Hong Kong 490 30 70 N/A
The performance of piled raft foundations can also be improved by correctly choosing
where the piles should be located beneath the raft. Generally, piles have to be concentrated in
areas that are most heavily loaded, while less heavily loaded areas can have few or even no piles.
Another option is to vary the diameter of the piles depending on the amount of load at different
locations. Piles with a bigger diameter can be placed in areas with heavy loads whereas smaller
diameter piles can be positioned in areas with less heavy loads (Xie & Chi, 2019). But in most
cases, piles of equal diameter and length and a raft with uniform thickness are used. Figure 14
below shows different patterns of piled raft foundations.
Figure 14: Different patterns of piled raft foundations (Fattah, et al., 2018)
Advantages of piled raft foundation include: there is great potential of reducing the cost
of the foundation significantly since the piles are not designed to support all the design loads of

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 20
the building; piles can be positioned strategically below the raft so as to control differential
settlements; the foundation design can be optimized by using piles of different diameters and/or
length positioned at different locations; the foundation design can also be optimized by using
varying raft thickness at different locations; reduces the length of piles and thickness of raft thus
lowering the cost of the foundation (Ziaie-Moayed, et al., 2010);
During the design process of piled raft foundations of high-rise buildings, the following
parameters should be determined so as to achieve the desired foundation performance cost
effectively: diameter and length of the piles, thickness of the raft, optimum number of the piles,
strategic locations or intervals of the piles, and reinforcements of the raft and piles.
There are several factors that should be considered when selecting the most suitable type
of foundation for high-rise buildings. These factors include: type of building structure, location
of the building, amount and spreading of loadings, conditions of the ground, access and
availability of space for construction equipment, adjacent structures and people and effects of
installation on them, durability requirements, local construction codes and practices, and relative
costs.
5. Design approaches
Foundations of high-rise buildings are subjected to a combination of lateral loads, vertical loads
and overturning loads. This makes conventional approaches inadequate to design and analyze the
stability of these foundations because they largely focus on vertical loading resistance only
(Poulos, 2010). Below are the criteria for the design of foundations of high-rise buildings:
5.1. Ultimate limit state (ULS) design approach
The design criteria of ULS design approach are:

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 21
Rg ≥ S and Rs ≥ S
Rg = φgRug
Rs = φsRus
Where Rg is the design geotechnical strength, Rs is the design structural strength, S is the
factored load combinations (design action effect), φg is the geotechnical reduction factor, Rug is
the ultimate geotechnical capacity, φs is the structural reduction factor, and Rus is the ultimate
structural capacity (Poulos, 2012).
The two criteria are applied to the whole building foundation system but Rs ≥ S is only applied to
each single pile. Applying Rg ≥ S to each single pile is likely to lead to overdesigning of the
foundation system. Rg and Rs can be estimated by multiplying appropriate reduction factors by
the estimated ultimate geotechnical and strength capacities. Values of geotechnical and structural
reduction factors are usually specified in standards or national building codes (usually ranging
between 0.4 and 0.9). The ULS design approach ensures that adequate factor of safety against
failure of the supporting soil and the foundation is used.
5.2. Serviceability limit state (SLS) design approach
The design criteria of SLS design approach are:
θmax ≤ θall. and ρmax ≤ ρall.
Where θmax is the maximum angular distortion (calculated), θall. is the allowable angular
distortion, ρmax is the maximum foundation settlement and ρall. is the allowable foundation
settlement. The values of θall. and ρall. are dependent on the nature of the supporting soil and the
building. These values can be obtained from standards and building codes. This criterion ensures

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 22
that the foundation’s differential and total settlements under working load is less so that it does
not affect the building’s serviceability.
Both the ULS design approach and SLS design approach should incorporate all the applicable
load combinations and cycling loading.
6. Foundation design process
The design of foundations of high-rise buildings is complicated and can only be achieved by
following the procedures recommended in applicable standards and building codes. This design
process normally encompasses the following aspects (Kim, et al., 2015):
Desk study: this involves conducting an investigation of the geology and hydrogeology of
the site so as to gather information about the solid rocks and movement and distribution of
groundwater. These parameters are important because they influence the interaction between the
foundation and the soil, which has an impact on the overall performance of the foundation.
Site investigation: this is done to assess the stratigraphy of the site and its variability.
Stratigraphy is basically the study of the various soil layers of the site. This provides essential
information about the weak and strong soil layers, which have a significant influence on the type
and size of the foundation.
In-situ testing: this is where relevant tests are conducted on site so as to obtain the
necessary geotechnical information (engineering properties of soil layers) to aid in the design of
the foundation.
Laboratory testing: there are some engineering properties of soil that may not be
determined from in-situ tests. This makes it necessary to conduct relevant laboratory tests. In this
case, soil samples are obtained from the site and taken to the laboratory for testing. The

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 23
laboratory testing can also be done to obtain more detailed information of the engineering
properties of soil and supplement the results obtained from in-situ testing.
Site characterization: this involves use of information obtained from the desk study, site
investigation, in-situ testing and laboratory testing to come up with the characteristics of the site.
These characteristics may include: type of soils, engineering properties of the soils, soil strata,
overall ground conditions, groundwater conditions, water table level, and ground contamination,
among others.
Geotechnical model: the information collected from the previous processes about the site
is then used to create a geotechnical model to represent the site. In case of variability in the
ground conditions of the site, several geotechnical models can be created to consider the same.
Preliminary evaluation of foundation requirements: calculating the structural loadings or
design load of the high-rise building is a very important step of the design process. This involves
calculating all the dead loads, live/imposed loads and special loads of the building. The load
imposed on the structure by earth pressure and water pressure should also be included. The total
load is known as the design load and it is a key parameter is determining the most suitable
foundation of the building. The preliminary evaluation is done using simple analysis and design
methods, and experience or case studies. The data is then used to develop a preliminary
geotechnical design of the foundation.
Design refinement: this involves improving the preliminary foundation design
requirements using more accurate data of the ground conditions, structural layout and structural
loadings. In this process, a wide range of design variables (type of foundation, shape, size,

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 24
length, layout and location of different components of the foundation) are presumed and adjusted
until the foundation design meets all the design requirements.
Detailed foundation design: this is an in depth process and it involves use of appropriate
approaches and tools (such as software) together with the information and data collected from
the previous stages to modify the foundation system so as to meet the foundation design
requirements. Numerous calculations, checks, design models and simulations are done in this
stage. The main outcome of this stage is the final design of the foundation. The key design
requirements are: vertical load capacity, horizontal load capacity, bending moment capacity, and
differential and total settlements.
 Vertical load capacity
The ultimate vertical load capacity of the foundation is determined by adding the ultimate
vertical load capacity of the individual components of the foundation (such as that of the soil,
raft and pile for the piled raft foundation):
PuF = PuS + PuR + NPuP
Where PuF = ultimate vertical capacity of the foundation, PuS = ultimate vertical capacity of soil,
PuR = ultimate vertical capacity of raft, N = number of piles, and PuP = ultimate vertical capacity
of pile.
 Horizontal load capacity
For the design of a piled raft foundation, the horizontal load capacity considered is that for the
piles only. The horizontal load capacity of the foundation is determined as the sum of horizontal
capacities for the individual piles, as follows:

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 25
∑
i=1
N
Hupi, where N = number of piles and HuP = horizontal load capacity of the pile
 Bending moment (BM) capacity
The ultimate BM capacity of the foundation is determined by adding the ultimate BM capacity of
the individual components of the foundation (such as that of the soil, raft and pile for the piled
raft foundation):
MuF = MuS + MuR + NMuP
Where MuF = ultimate BM capacity of the foundation, MuS = ultimate BM capacity of soil, MuR =
ultimate BM capacity of raft, N = number of piles, and MuP = ultimate BM capacity of pile.
 Differential settlement
The raft’s differential settlement is calculated using rotation (θ) caused by the wind load, and
calculated as follows:
θ= Mfound
CsIfound , where Cs= Es
f ' √ Afound
Where θ = wind load caused by the wind load, Mfound = fixed end moment at the interface of the
soil and the building, Cs = foundation modulus, Ifound = second moment f inertia of the
foundation, Afound = area of the foundation, Es = the soil’s modulus of elasticity, and f' =
overturning’s shape factor (usually 0.25) (Grunbeg & Gohlmann, 2013).
Once θ is determined, the raft’s differential settlement is calculated using trigonometric
relationship.

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 26
The piles’ differential settlement is calculated by considering the corresponding vertical loads
caused by the BM and the dead load. The settlement is dependent on the location of the pile
since resistance of the pile is different on the compression and tension sides.
Examples of tools and computer programs that can be used for the design of foundations of high-
rise buildings include: MATLAB, MATHCAD, ABAQUS, PLAXIS 3D, FLAC3D, pile group
settlement (PIGS), combined loading analysis of piles (CLAP), general analysis of rafts with
piles (GARP) and ELPLA.
Testing and confirmation of the foundation design: once all the checks have been
confirmed, the foundation design model or prototype has to be tested under different conditions
using appropriate design and simulation tools. The conditions may include earthquake or seismic
effects, flooding, etc. The testing provides useful information about the behavior and
performance of the foundation when subjected to different loading conditions and its capacity to
support the structural design loads of the building. When the foundation is found to meet all the
design requirements, it is confirmed to be satisfactory for the building. If not, necessary
improves can be done to make it satisfy all the design requirements. The improvement can be
positive (where the foundation requirements are reduced) or negative (where the foundation
requirements are increased).
7. Design issues
There are several issues that have to be addressed in the design of foundations of high-rise
buildings. Some of these issues are: ultimate capacity (combination of horizontal loading
capacity, vertical loading capacity and bending moment loading), effect of cyclic nature of wave,
earthquake and wind loadings on the capacity and movements of the foundation, settlements

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 27
(differential and total settlements), dynamic response of the foundation to the forces induced by
wind and earthquake effects, potential effects of imposed ground movements from adjoining
facilities or foundation excavation, and the structural design of the components of the foundation
system.
8. Challenges in design of foundations of high-rise buildings
As aforementioned, the design of foundations of high-rise buildings is very complex. As a result,
designers of these foundations face a variety of challenges. Some of these challenges include the
following:
Complex geological/geotechnical conditions: most high-rise buildings are built in cities
or urban areas that have limited space, drainage challenges and poor soils. This makes their
geological/geotechnical conditions to be very complex. On the other hand, high-rise buildings
are very sensitive to geological/geotechnical conditions (Poulos, 2014). As a result, designers
have to spend a lot of time and resources conducting geological investigation, developing
geotechnical models and analyzing them so as to determine the most suitable foundation design.
Non-uniform soil strata: some areas have non-uniform soil layers, which translate into
uneven settlement of the structure. This complicates the design process of the foundation because
the designers have to consider these differences so as to achieve equal settlement across the
entire building. To achieve this, more geotechnical studies, analysis of numerous design options,
development and analysis of several foundation models and numerous simulations have to be
done.
New systems and methods: in some cases, designers of foundations of high-rise buildings
have to use new components or components without any prior experience. This is challenging

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 28
because they are not guaranteed of their performance when used. For example, designers of
Shanghai Tower used extra-long piles for the foundation so as to achieve the desired bearing
capacity of the foundation. During that time, there was no past experience with the design and
construction of such type of extra-long pile foundations. When they were constructing the mat
foundation, they poured more than 61,000 m3 of concrete for 60 hours nonstop, which was also a
new experience.
Construction method: some foundation designs of high-rise buildings are difficult to
construct. The construction method selected influences the quality, time and cost of completing
the foundation and the stability of adjoining structures. For instance, the bored piles of Shanghai
Tower were made of C50 concrete and concrete was continuously poured for 60 hours when
constructing the tower’s raft foundation system. If this was not done correctly, the likelihood of
not achieving the desired strength of hardened concrete was very high. The method also
influences the construction equipment to be used and the safety of workers.
Cost: designers of foundations of high-rise buildings have to strike a balance between
structural integrity and cost of the foundation. There are several factors that influence the cost of
the foundation, including: types of soils, ground conditions and type and size of foundation. In
most cases, the cost of foundations in weak soils is greater than that of foundations in strong
soils.
Compatibility and interactions: foundation systems of high-rise buildings usually
combine a group of components. The interaction and compatibility of these components has a
significant influence on the performance of the foundation. Therefore designers have to ensure
that the interaction of various components enhances the performance of the foundation.

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 29
9. Case study
The case study analyzed in this report is the foundation of Shanghai Tower located in Lujiazui,
Shanghai, China (shown in Figure 15 below). This is a 632m-tall mixed-use building comprising
of a 5-story basement, 7-story podium and a 124-story main tower (Li, et al., 2014). It is
definitely a high-rise building and therefore the design of its foundation must have been very
critical. The interaction effect between the foundation and adjoining soil of Shanghai Tower was
analyzed using substructure method. In this method, a series of springs representing the
foundation and the adjoining soil were incorporated. The tower’s soil-foundation system was
then simplified into multiple rotation springs located at the base of the building. A finite element
(FE) model of the building’s foundation-soil system was developed and used to calibrate the
springs’ key parameters. The FE model was able to determine the rotation springs’ stiffness. The
stiffness was a key parameters for the design of the foundation because it provided
corresponding information about the behaviour and performance of the soil when subjected to
the tower’s design loads.

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 30
Figure 15: Shanghai Tower (Li, et al., 2014)
Table 2 below provides details of material properties of different soil layers as obtained from the
FE model of Shanghai Tower’s soil-foundation system.
Table 2: Properties of different soil layers of Shanghai Tower’s soil-foundation system
Soil
layer
Depth
range (m)
Poisson’s
ratio
Specific weight
(kN/m3)
Elasticity modulus
(MPa)
1 0-15 0.49 18.4 20.36
2 15-30 0.47 18.15 20.55
3 30-115 0.46 23.8 74.4
4 115-157 0.46 42.8 97.6
The FE model of the foundation together with the adjoining soil was evaluated using
ANSYS software. The basement’s slab and wall, the piles, the concrete raft, deformation

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 31
compatibility, adjoining soil, and force equilibrium between the soil and piles interface were
simulated by the respective shell and beam elements.
Two equal forces acting in opposite directions of the raft were used to determine the soil-
foundation system’s linear rotational stiffness. To achieve this, rotational moment had to be
determined first by multiplying the force acting on each side of the raft by the raft’s length. Since
the concrete’s Young’s modulus is much greater compared to that of soil (because the basement
of the tower was made of reinforced concrete), the raft’s and basement’s deflection was ignored
and the rocks on which the substructure was built taken as a rigid body. The elastic rotational
stiffness of the soil-foundation system was then calculated using the expression: K= F L2
∆ ; where
K = elastic rotational stiffness, F = force acting on one side of the raft, L = length of the raft and
∆ = relative vertical displacement recorded on the two sides of the raft.
From the calculations, it was found that the elastic rotational stiffness of Shanghai
Tower’s soil-foundation system was about 4.36 x 1013 Nm/rad. However, there are numerous
factors that can affect the estimated rotational stiffness value hence it had to be adjusted so as to
determine the actual. The adjustment factors used were 2.0 and 0.5, giving actual rotation
stiffness values ranging between 8.72 x 1013 Nm/rad and 2.18 x 1013 Nm/rad. These values were
used to analyze the sensitivity of the foundation to the soil. All this information was then used to
design the foundation of the Shanghai Tower, as shown in Figure 16 below.

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 32
Figure 16: Foundation details of Shanghai Tower (Li, et al., 2014)
As shown in Figure 16 above, the foundation of Shanghai Tower is a piled raft
foundation. The foundation comprises of a 5-story basement, a 6m-deep reinforced concrete raft
and a series of piles. This is the foundation that supports the main tower and transmits all the
design loads of the tower to the soil and ultimately to the bedrock (Tang & Zhao, 2013). The
piled raft foundation is in the shape of an octagon and has a raft with a total plan area of 8,945m2,
as shown in Figure 17 below (Gendy, et al., 2018). The pile system of the foundation comprises
of hundreds of bored piles. Each of the piles has a diameter of 1m, a depth of about 52m and
57m, and they have a spacing of 3m in each direction. Proper foundation design helped to
significantly extend the durability, improve the collapse margin ratio, reduce seismic demand,
and improve the overall resistance to seismic effects of Shanghai Tower. The main elements of
the design of foundation of Shanghai Tower were: selection of bearing stratum and type of pile,
determine the capacity of piles, determining the suitable raft thickness, and the estimating the
foundation settlement (Xiao, et al., 2011). Deformation analysis is also very essential and should
consider the heave caused by the excavated soil weight, recompression caused by the building’s
live load, recompression caused by the building’s dead load, and settlement caused by the
constant load (Tang & Zhao, 2013). All these parameters were used to optimize the design of the

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 33
foundation, reduce differential settlement of the building and improve the overall stability of the
tower.
Figure 17: Foundation system of Shanghai Tower (Li, et al., 2014)
The design of the foundation of Shanghai Tower posed numerous challenges. One of the
challenges was that there was very limited experience related to the use of the super-long pile
foundation that was adopted so as to achieve the desired bearing capacity. The bedrock of the
tower site was so deep that the practical foundations could not reach it. The site had nine
alternating layers of compressive sand and clay soils, spanning to a depth of 120m (Poon, et al.,
2010). Design of super-long pile foundations needs sophisticated methods and adequate
experience. The super-long bored piles also exhibited load bearing behavior that was quite
different from that of the typical short- and middle-length bored piles. Post grouting techniques
had to be applied so as to minimize the length of the piles and hence the overall cost of the
foundation.

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 34
The fundamental information obtained from this case study is that the design of
foundations of high-rise buildings is a complex process that must be done diligently. The design
should involve performing relevant site and ground investigations, analysis of different
construction materials, modelling and simulations using appropriate software, and use of suitable
methods and tools to determine the right design parameters for the foundation (Poulos, 2016).
The design process should also be done by following the stages recommended in applicable
standards and building codes. It is also important to emphasize that since the foundation is in
direct contact with the soil, the influence of the interaction between the soil and foundation on
the resistance of the high-rise building to seismic collapse must be thoroughly investigated. This
provides essential information that helps to determine the desired design parameters for the
foundation, such as type of foundation, size of foundation, type of construction materials, and
suitable construction method for the foundation.
10. Conclusions
The demand for high-rise buildings has continued to increase over the years in many cities
across the world due to industrialization and urban population growth. The heights of high-rise
buildings are also increasing, with the highest building in the world now standing at 828m (Burj
Khalifa). One of the components that significantly influences the stability and performance of
these buildings is their foundation. This report has revealed that the design of foundations of
high-rise buildings is a complex process. The design of these foundations is affected by type and
magnitude of design loads/forces, types of soil (geotechnical conditions), ground contamination,
level of water table and type of adjoining structures. These buildings are exposed to numerous
forces and have larger forces than the conventional low-rise and medium-rise buildings hence
they required strong foundations. The common types of foundations that are used for high-rise

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 35
buildings are mat foundations, pile foundations and piled raft foundations. Each of these
foundations is suitable for different types of structures and soil strata, hence several factors
should be considered to select the best option. Two design approaches are also commonly used
in the design of foundations of high-rise buildings. These are: ultimate limit state design
approach and serviceability limit state design approach.
High-rise building foundations can only be adequately designed by following the right design
process. This process entails details of what has to be done at each stage so as to design the
desired foundation. There are also several issues that should be considered when designing
foundations of high-rise buildings. All the issues must be taken into account when designing the
foundation. Some of the challenges faced when designing a high-rise building foundation
include: complex geological and geotechnical conditions, non-uniform soil strata, new systems
and methods, construction method, cost and compatibility and interactions.
The case study that has been examined in this report is the piled raft foundation of Shanghai
Tower. The design of this foundation showed the complexity of the design process and how to
overcome challenges faced. Based on the information from the above chapters, including the
case study, it is evident that the design of foundations of high-rise buildings requires numerous
geotechnical studies, use of appropriate design tools, software and approaches to develop models
and simulations, and following procedures recommended in applicable standards and codes. If
this is followed, then it becomes possible to design a foundation with the desired parameters for
the intended use.

Design of Foundations of High-Rise Buildings 36
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