Nursing Fundamentals: Human Body Systems, Functions, and Processes

This assignment provides a comprehensive overview of essential concepts in human biology relevant to nursing. It begins with an exploration of cell structure, skeletal muscle tissue, and cellular adaptation, including hyperplasia, hypertrophy, atrophy, and metaplasia. The assignment then delves into life processes such as organization, metabolism, nutrition, biological maturation, inheritance, and aging. It continues by examining the six levels of structural organization within the human body, from chemical to organismal levels. The assignment also addresses homeostasis, its relationship to disease, and the mechanisms of body temperature regulation. Furthermore, it details the structure and functions of various body systems, including the cardiovascular, respiratory, muscular, skeletal, endocrine, nervous, digestive, urinary, reproductive, integumentary, and lymphatic systems, along with their interactions and contributions to overall bodily functions and waste excretion. This assignment offers a thorough understanding of human anatomy and physiology, which is crucial for nursing students. The assignment is available on Desklib, a platform offering AI-based study tools for students.

Running head:BASIC QUESTIONS ABOUT NURSING
Basic Questions about Nursing
Name of the Student
Name of the University
Author Note

1BASIC QUESTIONS ABOUT NURSING
Knowledge questions
1. Briefly describe the overall structure and functions of the following components of
the human body.
a) Overall structure and functions of a human cell
Human cells are divisible into nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane. The cell
membrane is the basic covering that envelopes the nucleus and cytoplasm. The nucleus is a
spherical structure which is usually one in each cell, with exception of some types of cells. It
consists of nucleoplasm and nucleolus. The cytoplasm is enclosed between the cell
membrane and the nucleus. It consists of cytoplasmic organelles like mitochondria,
centrosome, Golgi body, endoplasmic reticulum (smooth and rough), ribosome and
lysosomes (Training.seer.cancer.gov. 2020).
Cells are the structural and functional units of any body. They act as the building
blocks of living beings and give the body a particular structure. They form various organs
and are differentiated into specialized cells according to the need in that organ
(Training.seer.cancer.gov. 2020).
b) Overall structure and functions of skeletal muscle tissue:
Skeletal muscle tissue is formed by many cells joined together to form muscle fibres
enclosed within connective tissue. Skeletal muscles show a banding pattern due to presence
of thick and thin filament proteins (myosin and actin). These are arranged in units known as
sarcomere, and the cell membrane is known as sarcolemma.

2BASIC QUESTIONS ABOUT NURSING
The major function of the skeletal muscle tissue is to help in movement and
locomotion controlled by the contraction and relaxation of the muscle fibres.
2. Briefly describe the following four (4) major types of cellular adaptation.
a. Hyperplasia:
Hyperplasia is the expansion in size of a particular organ or a tissue due to increased cell
division. This may indicate the primary stages of cancer.
b. Hypertrophy:
Hypertrophy is the expansion of an organ or a tissue due to increase in the cell size.
c. Atrophy
Atrophy is the mechanism of reabsorbing or breaking down of tissues also involving the
process of apoptosis and the decrease in size of cells.
d. Metaplasia:
Metaplasia may be described as a process by which a particular cell differentiates into
another type of cell.
(Toxtutor.nlm.nih.gov 2020)
3. Briefly describe the following life processes in your own words.
a) Organisation:
Biological organization can be described as the hierarchy of various biological systems and
structures of organs and tissues that carry out the necessary processes required for the
sustenance of life. There are levels of biological organization, which extend from the cells to
tissues to organs to systems and so on until the whole biosphere.
b) Processes of metabolism:

3BASIC QUESTIONS ABOUT NURSING
Metabolism can be described as the sum total of all the chemical reactions in the body that
carry out all the necessary functions required for sustaining life. This involves anabolism (the
process of building up compound molecules from simpler ones) and catabolism (the process
of breaking down complex particles into simpler ones) and both of them occur in balance.
c) Nutrition:
Nutrition is the process of acquiring food necessary for carrying out the metabolic processes
that are responsible for sustenance of life. Obtaining good nutrition is indispensable for the
proper and healthy growth of the body.
d) Biological maturation:
Biological maturation is the process by which the young body progresses towards adulthood.
All organs in the body go through the process of maturation eventually, but at different rates
and times (Freitas et al. 2014).
e) Inheritance:
Inheritance is the biological process, also referred to as heredity is the process by which the
parents pass on certain traits to their next progeny. This occurs through the process of
reproduction, and the off springs inherit genetic information necessary for the particular traits
from their parents.
f) Ageing:
Ageing can be referred to as the process of getting older. For any living beings, this
describes the time when the rate of tissue repair becomes slower, and the rate of cell
replacement is reduced, causing the body to wear out eventually (Who.int 2020).
4. Briefly describe the six (6) levels of structural organisation of the human body in
order from the smallest structural unit to the largest
The levels of structural organization of the human body are as follows-

4BASIC QUESTIONS ABOUT NURSING
 Chemical- This includes nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, calcium atoms together to form
protein, lipid, fat.
 Cellular- Molecules are combined to form cells, which are structural and functional
units of the body.
 Tissue- Many cells together comprises of the tissue, which perform specialized
functions. These are many types, like skeletal tissues and epithelial tissues.
 Organ- Specific tissues combined together form an organ that performs a specific
function.
 Organ system- Several organs together form a system that performs a whole process.
For example, stomach, liver, pancreas, large intestine, small intestine are a part of the
digestive system.
 Organism- Many systems together form an organism, which is a whole living entity
and capable of performing all the necessary functions required for life.
5. The human body strives to adjust to conditions that are optimal for survival.
Answer the following questions on homeostasis.
a) Briefly describe the concept of homeostasis in your own words.
Homeostasis can be described as the body’s tendency to maintain equilibrium via performing
different physiological functions.
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b) Briefly describe the relationship between homeostatic imbalance and disease.

5BASIC QUESTIONS ABOUT NURSING
Due to homeostatic imbalance, the feedback loops of the body does not work as well and the
functions are not properly balanced. This increases the likelihood of causing a disease.
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c) Briefly explain the process of body temperature regulation through behavioural
and physiological mechanisms.
Body temperature is maintained by the process of sweating, which cools the body down
during heat, and shivering, which retains body heat during the cold.
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6. Briefly describe the structure and functions of the cardio-vascular system.
The cardiovascular system can be divided into the blood, heart and blood vessels. The heart is
divisible into four chambers, right and left atrium and ventricles.
The major function of this is the transport hormones, nutrients and oxygen throughout the
human body and collect metabolic waste from various organs (Hall 2015).
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7. Briefly describe the structure and functions of the respiratory system.
The respiratory system can be divided in to nose, then pharynx, followed by the laryx,
trachea, bronchi and finally lungs.

6BASIC QUESTIONS ABOUT NURSING
The major function of the respiratory system is the taking up of oxygen from the environment
and expelling carbon dioxide from the body simultaneously (Hall 2015).
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8. How does the respiratory system work with the cardio-vascular system?
The heart is responsible for taking up deoxygenated blood from the body via the
cardiovascular system and sending them to the lungs via pulmonary artery. The heart also
receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins which is then circulated
throughout the body. The lung passes out the carbon dioxide from the deoxygenated blood
and provides the blood with oxygen by inhaling it. This is how the respiratory system and
cardiovascular system works together.
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9. Briefly describe the structure and functions of the muscular system.
The muscular system consists of few types of muscles including cardiac, smooth and skeletal
muscles. These are made of muscle fibres which are surrounded by connective tissue.
The major function of this system is the voluntary (skeletal muscles) and involuntary
(Cardiac muscles) movement of the body (Hall 2015).
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10. Briefly describe the structure and functions of the skeletal system.

7BASIC QUESTIONS ABOUT NURSING
The skeletal system consists of bones, cartilage and ligaments that together form the structure
that supports the body and gives it shape.
The major function of the skeletal system is to control the position of the body and control
the movements of the body (Hall 2015).
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11. Briefly describe the interactions between the muscular system and skeletal system
in maintaining the posture and balance of the body.
The muscles are attached to the bones, and work together is maintaining the posture of the
body as well as movements of the body. The muscles pull on the bones and control the
movement as required. The muscles control the movement while the bones balance that
movement.
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12. Briefly describe the structure and functions of the endocrine system.
The endocrine system is made up of several glands such as pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, testis
and ovaries that are present in different regions of the body.
The major function of the endocrine system is the production and secretion of hormones that
perform specialized functions of the body (Hall 2015).
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8BASIC QUESTIONS ABOUT NURSING
13. Briefly describe the structure and functions of the nervous system.
The nervous system consists of central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the
peripheral nervous system (these are nerves originating from the brain and spinal cord).
The major functions of this system is the sensory, integration and motor functions. Here, the
body receives stimulus, integrates and analyses it, and sends back signals responsible for
functions of the body (Hall 2015).
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14. How do the endocrine and nervous systems work together to act as a
communication system for the human body?
The nervous system sends specific stimulus to the glands, especially the pituitary glands
according to the need of the body. The nervous system controls the amount of hormone
secretion of each gland according to the body’s needs. It also controls the feedback loop. This
way, they act as a communication system for the body and maintain homeostasis.
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15. Briefly describe the structure and functions of the digestive system.
The digestive system is made up of the mouth, oesophagus, stomach and large and small
intestine. It also includes accessory digestive organs that can be named as liver, gall bladder
and pancreas.
The major functions of this system is the ingestion and breaking down of the food in to
simpler particles for the body to use, as well as excretion of waste from the body.

9BASIC QUESTIONS ABOUT NURSING
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16. Briefly describe the structure and functions of the urinary system.
The urinary system is made up of the kidneys, urinary bladder, ureters and urethra.
The function of the urinary system is to get rid of toxic substances produced by metabolism
in the body via urine (Hall 2015).
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17. Briefly describe how the urinary system, respiratory system, digestive system and
integumentary system contribute to excretion of waste products from the human
body.
The urinary system filters the blood in the nephron to collect waste materials and eliminate
them via urine.
The respiratory system is responsible for eliminating carbon dioxide from the body via the
lungs.
The digestive systems eliminates the undigested food particles and older cell from the linings
of elementary canal via defecation.
The integumentary system eliminates excess water and salts from the body via sweating,
sometimes even a little urea (Hall 2015).
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10BASIC QUESTIONS ABOUT NURSING
18. Briefly describe the structure and functions of the male and female reproductive
systems.
The male reproductive system consists of testis and penis. The female reproductive
systems consist of ovaries, vagina and uterus.
The main function of the reproductive system is the production of gametes for the
purpose of sexual reproduction and implantation and growth of foetus in females (Hall
2015).
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19. Briefly describe the interaction of the reproductive and endocrine systems.
The reproductive system consists of endocrine organs like ovary and testis and secrete
reproductive hormones which controls the whole process of reproduction.
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20. Briefly describe the structure and functions of the integumentary system.
The integumentary system is built up of outer organs, namely skin, hair, nails, nerves and
glands.
The basic function of this system is to provide the first line of defence against pathogens and
also protect the inner organs from mechanical damage. Skin is also responsible for regulating
body temperature (Hall 2015).

11BASIC QUESTIONS ABOUT NURSING
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21. Briefly describe the structure and functions of the lymphatic system.
The lymphatic system consists of lymph nodes and lymph organs including spleen and
thymus.
The major functions include removal of waste from the body and production of immune cells
(Hall 2015).
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22. Describe the three (3) lines of defence provided by our immune system.
The first line of defence aims to keep the pathogens out (skin and mucosa).
The second line of defence entails inflammatory responses and fever to act against the
pathogens that have passed beyond the first line of defence.
The third line of defence involves the lymphocytes like T-cells and B-cells that have specific
immune responses against pathogens (Punt, Stranford, Jones and Owen 2019).
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23. Briefly describe the structure of the human eye and how the eyes contribute to our
vision.