Human Body Systems: An Overview of Bones, Joints, Muscles, and More

Desklib provides past papers and solved assignments for students. This report explores the human body's major systems.

Soft Tissue Therapy
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Table of Contents
Introduction...............................................................................................................................3
1. Bones.....................................................................................................................................4
2. Joints......................................................................................................................................5
3. Non-Skeletal Muscle............................................................................................................6
4. Blood Circulation.................................................................................................................7
5. Skin........................................................................................................................................8
6. Nervous System....................................................................................................................9
7. Respiration..........................................................................................................................12
8. Digestion.............................................................................................................................12
9. Lymphatic System..............................................................................................................13
10. Endocrine System.............................................................................................................15
Conclusion...............................................................................................................................17
Reference List.........................................................................................................................18
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Introduction
Different body organs and systems such as bones, non-skeleton muscles, blood
circulation, skin, respiration, digestive system, endocrine system, lymphatic system and
others have different roles and purposes in the body. All these organs and systems are
responsible for our feelings, thoughts, digestion, memory storage and others.
This particular paper will outline significance of different body organs including bines,
joints, blood circulation, nervous system and others. Additionally, the digestion system
of the human body will also be explained in this study. Blood circulation and endocrine
system will be explained in this paper as well for better understanding of this project.
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1. Bones
The functions of the skeletal system
There are four functions of the skeletal system, all of which have been elaborated here
down below:
Protection – The skeletal system assists in the protection of all the major organs inside
the body. Organs such as heart, lungs, brains and others are all sensitive parts, which can
be easily injured if met with a high impact in such a case the rib cage, the vertebrae and
skull help in protection (Jerome et al., 2018).
Blood cell production – Within the red bone marrow of the production of white and red
blood cells. As the body of an individual ages the marrow, body that is present within a
person’s bones changes to yellow cells, which are composed of fat cells.
Movement – Helps in the movement of the body and acts a vessel through which there is
flow of blood and process such as digestion, wastage storage and others.
Structure – The skeletal system helps in giving form to the body and helps it giving
proper posture and motion so that there is minimal friction.
The five classifications of bone, with examples
The five types of classifications of bones are enlisted here below:
Flat bones
These bones help in the protection of internal organs. Examples of these bones include
cranial bones, ribs, sternum, and scapulae
Long bones
These are types of bones in the supporting the weight of the muscles assist in higher
mobility. Examples of these bones include humerus, radius, ulna, femur, fibula and
others.
Short bones
These bones act as connectors that assist in the stability of movement. Examples of these
bones include tarsals and carpals.
Irregular Bones
These bones help in giving structure and shape to the human body. Examples of these
bones include sacrum and vertebrae.
Sesamoid Bones
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These bones help in protection of tendons so that there is less wear and stress. An
example of these bones includes patella.
The process of Ossification
Ossification is the process of bone tissue formation. There are two types of processes
that fall under this process i.e. Intramembranous ossification and Endochondral
ossification. In intramembranous ossification bones rest directly on top of primitive
connective tissue. While in the endochondral ossification, the fractures of treated by
internal fixation and open reduction through screws, metal plates, rods, nails and others
so that the healing process takes place.
Osteoblasts
These cells help in forming a new bone. They also come up from the marrow of bone and
help in cell structuring (Bain et al., 2019). They only attain one nucleus. The cells of
osteoblasts help in building the new bone, which is called osteoid that is composed of
bone collagen along with other proteins. In osteoblasts, there is transfer of minerals in
the bone matrix as well, through this there is a break down in the tissues which help in
restructuring (Boskey and Robey, 2018). The ways in which osteoblasts increases within
an individual are through performing training, eating vegetables, and others.
2. Joints
Synovial joints
These joints are also termed as joins bones with fibrous joint or diarthrosis. These joints
are capsules that are comprised of a layer on the outside called articular capsule. The
synovial capvity is filled up with synovial fluid (Sokoloff, 2014). In the synovial joint,
the blood supply is derived from the arteries that are shared within the anastomosis. The
most common way in which these joints help in the human body is through movement of
joint of the body.
Suture joints
A suture joint is a form of fibrous joint that is present within the skull of an individual.
Fibrous joint are densely connective tissues that are primarily comprise of collagen. This
type of joints, which are fixed by bones that are connected by a layer of fibrous white
tissue that is varied in thickness. A small movement in within the sutures contributes to
the elasticity and compliance of the skull.
Cartilaginous joints
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These are joints are totally form of cartilage. Cartilaginous joints are primarily
discovered in between the bones than they are in the fibous joint. In the human body
there are two forms of cartilaginous joints i.e. primary cartilaginous joints and secondary
cartilaginous joints. In primary cartilaginous joints bones are connected by the hyaline
cartilage which happens to be between the ossifications centers. In secondary
cartilaginous joints, hyaline joints and Fibrocartilaginous are usually present between the
midline.
Symphyses
A symphysis a fibrocartilaginous fusion that is present in between two bones. It is a type
of secondary cartilaginous joint. In symphysis, there is growth of different parts and
structures. Some major symphyses are sacrococcygeal symphysis, intervertebral disc,
mandibular symphysis and others. Public symphyses diastasis is a very rare instance that
occurs when female is giving birth. In this process there is a sound which might be heard
in within the ear drums that could indicate a case of symphysis.
3. Non-Skeletal Muscle
Cardiac muscle
There are forms of vertebrate, skeletal and smooth muscles. It is a striated muscle that is
involuntary that consists of the main tissue protect the heart. The cardiac muscle
consists of cardiomyocytes that are connected by the intercalated discs ( Hirt et al.,
2014). Furthermore the collagen fibres along with additional substances form the
extercellcular matrix to protect them. On the exterior, there is formulation of the
myocardium, which is a thick layer in between the heart wall and outer layer.
Smooth muscle
This is a non-striated muscle that is involuntary in nature. These muscles may be divided
into two muscles i.e. multiunit smooth muscle and single-unit muscle. Inside the single-
unit muscles there are entire bundles of syncytium. The walls of smooth muscle consists
of Mucosa, Submucosa, Muscularis, Adventitia, Striated muscle, Striated and smooth,
Smooth muscle, Lamina muscularis mucosae and Esophageal glands. Smooth muscle
cells are usually found in between the walls of hollow organs. Examples of these organs
include intestines, urinary bladder, stomach, and others. Within the skin, smooth muscles
help in the hair to be erect when there the skin responses to cold or reacts to fear.
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4. Blood Circulation
The components that make up blood and the main function of each
The components that are contained within the human blood are as follows:
Red Cells – The primary function of these cells is to help in the transfer of blood to
organs such as lungs and other tissues that present within the body and in the transport of
carbon dioxide, which helps in lowering ageing (Mohanty et al., 2014.). They also help
in the production of stem cells.
White Cells – These cells function as disease fighting and preservation of the human
body. These cells identify and seek out alien proteins such as bacteria, fungi and viruses
so that they can be eliminated.
Platelets – These cells help when the human body bleeds in any form. It factions as the
means through which there is coagulation and there is a clumping and clotting of cells
whereby which external elements cannot enter the blood.
Plasma – Blood plasma helps in the dissolution of nutrients as it contents glucose.
Additionally, it provides additional support to platelets and helps in injury as there is
more easier way of clotting.
Agglutination – The function of agglutination is helping the clumping of cells such as
bacteria and red blood cells that affect and harm the body. Through this, there is
promotion of antibodies within the body by which there is less pain.
The difference between arteries and veins
Arteries:
They help in the carry of blood from sources such as heart to other tissues of the human
body. Arteries are usually present and positioned deep within the body, as they are more
muscular than veins (Corada et al., 2014).
Veins:
These help in the carrying of blood from the tissues back to within the heart. These
tissues would collapse if there were stoppage in the flow of blood. Veins can usually be
located close beneath the skin and are sometimes visible due to reasons such as
malnutrition, soft skin and other reasons.
Describe the process of Osmosis
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Osmosis is the progress of solvent molecules by a selectively permeable membrane into
a higher concentration of solute. A good example Osmosis would be of liquid molecules
from a place of higher concentration to position of lower concentration, and this be
illustrated best through the intake of water molecules within plants. Osmosis is the most
vital process in biological systems as semipermeable and biological membranes ( Shaffer
et al., 2015.).
5. Skin
The functions of the Skin
The five main functions of the human are as follows:
Temperature regulation of the body – The skin helps the internal muscles from not
being overheated or being frozen.
Prevents in loss of vital body fluids – The skin stops from spillage or leakage of red
blood, white blood cells and fluids, which are essential for any human body.
Does not let toxic substances enter – It does not let harm substances such as arsenic,
benzene and other elements to come in direct contact with the muscles, which are present
within the body (Haniffa et al., 2015).
Helps to excrete toxic substance by sweat – When there is an excessive amount of water
in the body or the body is overheating then, then there is chances of sweating to release
the water so that the wastage material is removed.
Protection of the body from harmful effects – When the body comes in contact with the
sun rays then there are chances of being exposed to cancerous ray which the skin helps is
protection from.
The Epidermis layer
This a thick layer of skin that has five parts. These parts include stratum spinosum,
stratum basale, stratum granulosum, stratum corneum, and stratum lucidum. The
epidermis layer performs as a barrier that helps in protection from environmental
pathogens and inflections. Additionally it functions as system which helps in the
regulation of water from the body.
The dermis layer
This is also called the corium of the skin lies between the subcutaneous tissues and
epidermis. It primarily consists of dense irregular connective tissue helps in the
cushioning of the body from strain and stress. In terms of the structural consistencies, the
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dermis’ components are elastic fibers, collagen, and extrafibrillar matrix. Within the
dermis also contains mechanoreceptor that helps in feeling the touch of things. The
places in which dermis is present are places such as sweat glands, hair follicles,
apocrine glands, sebaceous glands (oil glands), lymphatic vessels , and blood vessels.
With the help of these blood vessels, there is carry of both nourishment and waste from
the body.
The sensory information we get from the skin
There are three type of skin senses which are present within the skin i.e. pressure, touch
and temperature (Ju and Liu, 2014). Apart from the skin the other places from which
have sensory actions are eyes, ears, nose, and tongue. There are multiple sensory
neurons, which are present throughout the skin, that help in transmission of information.
This form of sensory information takes place in places such as from skeletal muscle and
the sensory organs. In time of danger, the skin also helps in knowing when there is any
threat. For instance, when any sensory part is exposed to electricity, it sends information
to the brain that the body is in danger (Carter, 2014).
6. Nervous System
Nervous system is one of the main functions of a human body that is essentially the
electrical wiring of a body and is a complex collection of the nerves for transmitting
signals between various organs of a human body (Nieuwenhuys et al., 2014).
The nervous system has three major functions: collecting the sensory input from the
human body as well as external environment, processing and interpreting the sensory
input and responding in appropriate manner to the sensory input. Nervous system has
neurons that transmit signals across the body. Additionally, there is also motor neurons
those are responsible for transmitting the signals to the muscles.
Difference between the central and peripheral nervous system
Basis of comparison Central nervous system Peripheral nervous
system
Function This central nervous
system consists of spinal
cord and brain of the
Peripheral nervous system
consists of spinal and
cranial nerves, dorsal and
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human body (Lutz and
Barres, 2014)
ventral root nerve cell
heads
Control Brain controls the main
functions of the body
Peripheral nervous system
control various functions
of reasons such as blood
vessels, internal organs,
smooth as well as cardiac
muscles
Role Through the PNS, the CNS
is connected to the sensory
receptors, muscles as well
as glands in the body’s
peripheral parts (Vaso et
al., 2014).
Nerve impulses are
contracted through the
sensory neurons from the
sensory receptors in the
different body parts to the
CNS.
Nature All the voluntary functions
of a human body are
controlled by the CNS.
All the involuntary
functions of a human body
is controlled and
influenced through the
PNS.
Table 1: Difference between CNS and PNS
(Source: Created by learner)
CNS or central nervous system consists of brain and the spinal cord. Both of the brain
and spinal cord serve command station of the nervous system.
On the other hand, PNS is made of nerves that leave the brain as well as the spinal cord
and travel to certain body parts. Basically, PNS consists of spinal and cranial nervous,
dorsal and ventral root nerve cell heads (Anderson et al., 2016).
One of the major parts of the PNS is Somatic nervous system including the autonomic
nervous system. Involuntary processes within the body are controlled through the
autonomic nervous system like heart rate, urination, digestion and the fight-or-fight
response. All voluntary muscle movement and reflex arcs are controlled through SNS as
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well as has the responsibility of processing externally gathered information like sound,
touch, smell, taste and others.
SNS’s primary role is connecting the CNS to the muscles, organs and skin. It allows
performing complex movements as well as behaviours (Powley, 2014). Messages are
carried from the body’s outer areas through the somatic neurons. Sensory neurons have
the responsibility of carrying the impulses to the brain and CNS. Furthermore, somatic
neurons create a passageway from the environment to the CNS. Efferent neurons or the
somatic motor takes the signal back to the sensory as well as muscle organs, after being
processed through the CNS.
Figure 1: Afferent nerve
(Source: Sakakura et al., 2014)
Difference between somatic and autonomic nervous system
Somatic nervous system Autonomic nervous system
SNS is the part of the nervous system that
controls the exhaustive voluntary
movements within a human body.
Another part of the nervous system is
autonomic nervous system that has the
responsibility of regulating the
involuntary movements within the body.
This nervous system is also popular as
voluntary nervous system.
This nervous system is also popular as
involuntary nervous system.
This detects sensory stimuli: noise, smell, This detects different sensory stimuli like
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light, taste, pain, touch and temperature. salinity, pressure and ph.
This basically composed of myelinated
nerve fibers that are thick.
This consists of both of the thick and thin
myelinated nerve fibers.
Table 2: Difference between somatic and autonomic nervous system
(Source: Created by learner)
Proprioception refers to the unconscious perception of movement as well as special type
of orientation that are arising from the stimuli across the human body itself (Han et al.,
2016). In humans, these all stimuli are being detected by the semicircular canals of the
inner ear or by the nerves with the body itself.
7. Respiration
External respiration is regarded as the formal term for the gas exchange. This describes
both of the bulk flow of the air into as well as out of the lungs including continuous
transfer of carbon dioxide and oxygen into the bloodstream by diffusion. Three key
components of the external respiration are the partial pressure gradients of the gasses, the
surface area of the alveolar membrane and the matching of the ventilation as well as
perfusion. In simple words, external respiration refers to the exchange of gasses between
the bloodstream and the external environment. However, basically these two gasses
oxygen and carbon dioxide flow in the process of external respiration. Furthermore,
external respiration includes partial pressure gradients allow gasses for flowing from
high pressure areas to lower pressure areas.
Internal respiration is referred to gas exchange, which occurs at the standard of the
body tissues. Oxygen’s partial pressure in the tissues is low, almost 40 mm Hg, as
oxygen is randomly utilized for the cellular respiration. In the blood, oxygen’s partial
pressure is almost 100 mm Hg. It makes a pressure gradient, which actually causes
oxygen for dissociating from the hemoglobin, cross the interstitial space, diffuse out of
the blood and enters the tissue. Hemoglobin, which especially has little oxygen, is bound
to lose its brightness as well. Therefore, blood returning to the heart is colored burgundy.
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