CBH290: Immunity, Immunization and Antibiotic Resistance Report

This report delves into the intricacies of immunity, immunization, and antibiotic resistance. It begins by defining key terms like immunity and immunization, followed by explanations of natural active, natural passive, artificial active, and artificial passive immunity, complete with examples. The report then examines the measles vaccination program in the UK, analyzing its impact and the controversy surrounding the MMR vaccine. Finally, it explores the long-term effects of antibiotics on pathogen resistance, detailing the mechanisms of resistance, types of resistant bacteria, detection methods, and potential treatments and preventative measures. The report draws on various research papers and journals to support its findings and provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.

Immunity, Immunization and
Antibiotic-Resistant

Table of Contents
Immunity, Immunization and Antibiotic-Resistant.........................................................................1
1. Define...........................................................................................................................................3
2. Terms explained with appropriate antibody formation................................................................3
3. Measles vaccination and the impact of the measles/MMR mass immunization programme in
the UK..............................................................................................................................................5
4. Long-term effects of antibiotics on pathogen resistance.............................................................6
REFERENCES................................................................................................................................9

1. Define
a) Immunity
A persons body is exposed to many pathogens every day which make it susceptible to get
infected by the disease causing pathogens like viruses and bacteria. On the surface of pathogens
there are antigens which stimulate the immune system of the person’s body. The immune system
response against the invaders to protect the body and this ability of the body is called immunity.
(Fitzgerald and Kagan, 2020).
b)Immunization
Immunization means the process in which the body is made to protect itself from the
invaders which are causing infections. Vaccines are used to stimulate the immune system of the
body against the pathogens which are causing the illness (Boyce and et al., 2019).
2. Terms explained with appropriate antibody formation.
a) Natural active immunity:
The body exposed to the invaders catch the disease but naturally the immune system
forms the antigens to fight against the disease causing pathogen, then it is called the natural
active immunity of the body.
The pathogens come in contact with the body and they gradually transfers from the skin
to the mucous membranes where the white blood cells containing B-cells becomes active and
form antigens to compete against the pathogens. The formation of the antigen might takes days
or weeks but the effect is life long. The vaccine does the same thing, they stimulate the immune
system to fight against the disease causing pathogens. Example: the vaccine for the hepatitis A
will stimulate the immune system to form the antigens for protecting life long.
b)Natural passive immunity
Immunity is transferred from the mother to the child at the time of birth in form of
antigens to protect from germs and infections, then it is called natural passive immunity. It can

be transferred from the mother to the baby by blood through placenta or from the milk of the
mother the baby feed on. The isotype antibodies are mainly:
i)lgG- Immunoglobulin G
ii)lgA- Immunoglobulin A
The antigen stays in the body of the baby for a short period approximately 4 to 6 months
and the strong immunity develops in the child at the age of 5 years.
Human milk also contain oligo saccharides, mucin, lactoferrin, fibronectin, gamma-
interferon and lysozyme which help in keeping the viruses and bacteria away from the body,
repairs the damages made by the pathogens, makes the gastrointestinal tract of babies free from
the harmful bacteria and viruses, enhances the growth of immune cells, make the gastrointestinal
tract to develop faster, etc.
c)Artificial active immunity
Antigens or antibodies are artificially added by a vaccine, to the persons body before any
infection or virus had entered the body to protect the body when the infection might enter the
body, then it is called artificially acquired active immunity.
The vaccine is provided with the immune simulators and memory cells so as when the
invader enters the body, the body will actively remember the invader antigen and give an
effective response by destroying the foreign invaders, and they are out of the persons' system
before showing any symptoms.
Sometimes single doses of vaccines are enough to protect the body and sometime the
doses are given at intervals of few weeks or years to boost the effect of the doses given earlier. It
is essential to effectively increase the response from the immune system for better protection of
the body and give long-lasting results.
d)Artificial passive immunity

Antibodies generated by the immune system of a person infected by a certain disease are
taken and transferred to a patients body through injection or transfusion to protect the patient
from the disease, is called artificial passive immunity.
It is a short-lived immunity given to the person lacking the required antigen to protect the
body from the foreign pathogen. The time when the given artificial antigens are used up to fight
against the disease, the patients body is no longer able to produce its own antigen and can fall ill
as there is no involvement of the patients own immune system. To stop this from happening the
repeated doses are given to the person. The repeated doses can be harmful for the long run as it
effect the kidneys of the person and can fail kidneys of the person. So, it is not commonly used.
3. Measles vaccination and the impact of the measles/MMR mass
immunization programme in the UK.
The measles' immunization programme conducted in UK is shown in the graph from the
year 1996-2013.
It can be concluded from the graph that there were less than a hundred measles cases
when the vaccination rate was 87%, according to the paper published in 1998, linking to the
MMR to autism by Andrew Wakefield who was a British physician and academic.
After that in the year 2002, it was found that the cases are increasing continuously with
1500 cases each year. One article in UK press revealed that the MMR reaches its 10-year peak.
The immunization was 82% by then.
In another study done on 2010, Andrew Wakefield was struck off the medical field due to
the fraud he created in the lancet(a prestigious medical journal)MMR autism in 1998 study. The
measles cases were found to be 400 which was a complete recovery state for the country with the
immunization rate up-to 88%.
But after that the measles cases hiked furiously to about 2000 cases in 2012 with
immunization rate of 91%. To get in control the immunization was continued and the cases were
about 1500 in the year 2013.

The cases in 2013 have fallen, but they are still more in comparison to the cases in 1990.
and rising in the year 2018. The number of positive measles cases in 2018 were found to be four
times the cases during the 2017. The people who came positive were the ones that missed the
MMR vaccination. The current situation in UK is getting worse as it has three times more cases
than in 2017 and fifteen times more than in 2016. The cases were 95% of the babies under the
age of one year who were not vaccinated. The condition is expected to get worse with the time in
UK due to the travelling.
4. Long-term effects of antibiotics on pathogen resistance
A person infected with some bacteria or a fungus such as penicillium chrysogenum and
penicillium griseofulvum, is given antibiotics to stop the growth of that disease causing
pathogen. But antibiotics are useless for the treatment of infections caused by the viruses,
example: strep throat.
The bacteria and virus have the ability of mutate and adapt according to the environment
they are in for the survival. They have the tendency to reproduce and multiple quickly.
Antibiotics given in starting slow the growth of the bacteria and stop the infection caused by
them. But with time the bacteria made some genetic changes in them and can resist the effect of
the antibiotic present at the site.(Xu and et al., 2019.)
This evolution with the time can be due to the number of ways:
1) The bacteria might contain a resistive gene against the antibiotic which help it survives in
presence of antibiotic.
2) The bacteria have the tendency to increase by dividing and in this process some genetic
mutation may occur which help them to survive against the antibiotic.
3) The bacteria can share their genes from the nearby mutated bacteria present and can go
resistant to antibiotic.
4) The antibiotics when taken unnecessarily, then the bacteria create their own versions which
are resistant to the antibiotic. It may happen when the physician prescribes the antibiotic due to

the insistent patient without diagnosing the patient or when the broad spectrum antibiotics are
taken in place of some other antibiotic which would have worked better for the case.
5) If the patient is in severe condition, they might need more antibiotics because they are easily
infected and are surrounded by many other patients in the hospital, which allows the bacteria to
develop more resistant forms.
Types of bacteria that show resistance:
Methicillin-resistant namely staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)bacteria found in hospitals
and health cares and people who are in close contact to each other like athletes.(Luria and et.al,
1943)
 Vancomycin-resistant enterococci(VRE)bacteria compete against the last resort
antibiotic which is vancomycin.
 E.coli, salmonella and campylobacter are some bacteria cause by food.
 Sexually transmitted bacteria that cause gonorrhoea.
 Streptococci which is resistant to penicillin and cause pneumonia.
How can antibiotic-resistant infections be detected:
This is done by culture and sensitivity which means test are done to know which bacteria
are causing which infection and which bacteria are resistant to which particular antibiotic.(Moka
and et.al, 2018.)
Samples such as blood, urine, stool, sputum, tissue, mucus can be taken from nose,
throat, genitals, etc., to conduct test which may take days and weeks to come as the bacteria is
allowed to grow for its identification.
In many cases the patient can not wait for the results to come and in this condition they
are given broad-spectrum antibiotics for which the patient can be given some specific antibiotic
for the treatment.

Treatments for the antibiotic-resistant infections:
Antibiotics are used to fight against the bacterial and some fungal infections but not with
the viral infections, using antibiotic for the viral infections may generate more antibiotic-resistant
bacteria. So it is always better to take the prescribed drugs or antibiotic from a certified doctor. A
doctor can give more appropriate and effective antibiotic for a particular bacterium causing
infection.(Reardon, 2017)
How can antibiotic-resistant be prevented:
Antibiotic-resistant can be prevented by maintaining proper hygiene.
Maintaining one shelf's proper nutrition, getting adequate sleep and exercise. The more
care is taken of the body the less time it will get infected and the less time the body need
antibiotic, lesser the antibiotic lesser will be the chance to get infected with the antibiotic-
resistant bacteria. (Bertollo and et.al, 2018)

REFERENCES
Books and journals
Bertollo, L.G. and et.al, 2018. Are antimicrobial stewardship programs effective strategies for
preventing antibiotic resistance? A systematic review. American journal of infection
control. 46(7). pp.824-836.
Boyce, T and et al., 2019. Towards equity in immunisation. Eurosurveillance.24(2). p.1800204.
Fitzgerald, K.A. and Kagan, J.C., 2020. Toll-like receptors and the control of immunity.
Cell.180(6). pp.1044-1066.
Luria, S.E. and et.al, 1943. Mutations of bacteria from virus sensitivity to virus resistance.
Genetics.28(6). p.491.
Moka, P., et.al, 2018. Impact of antibiotic-resistant bacterial and fungal infections in outcome of
acute pancreatitis. Pancreas, 47(4).pp.489-494.
Reardon, S., 2017. Modified viruses deliver death to antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Nature
News.546(7660). p.586.
Xu, R and et al., 2019. Meta genomic analysis reveals the effects of long-term antibiotic pressure
and antimicrobial resistance risk. Bioresource technology.282.pp.179-188.