Oxford University: Indigenous Culture Research and Personal Reflection

This assignment presents a student's reflection on research about Indigenous cultures, focusing on cultural identity and its significance in managing people and organizations. The student was tasked with researching an Indigenous culture, potentially using keywords like 'Indigenous cultural histories and contemporary experiences,' and writing a reflection based on the research. The reflection includes an analysis of the student's prior knowledge, new insights gained from the research, and practical applications of this learning in a workplace setting. The assignment also involved completing a stress management questionnaire and exploring Hofstede's cultural dimensions to broaden the understanding of cultural nuances. The goal is to enhance understanding of diverse cultures and apply this knowledge to improve management practices.

3
Chapter 1
culture, IdentIty and IndIgenous
australIan PeoPles
ron hampton and Maree toombs
learning objectives:
this chapter should assist you to:
− understand concepts of race
− articulate concepts of culture, identity and social organisation
− understand the diversity of Indigenous cultures and the role of cultural identity and
practices
− reflect on the role of cultural practices and identity for Indigenous cultures globally
and in australia
− reflect on the diversity of aboriginal and torres strait Islander identity, cultures and
societies.
aboriginal australians
torres strait Islanders
Indigenous australians
race
culture
identity
ethnicity
Indigenous cultures
country
dreamings
discrete Indigenous
communities
Key terms:
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4 Part 1: IndIgenous australIans: hIstory, culture and IdentIty
Note: Throughout this book, we will be using different terminology to refer
to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. We accept that not everyone
agrees with the use of these terms, nor with the use of the term ‘Indigenous
Australians’. We accept that individuals may prefer to be identified by their
language/cultural name, for example Jagera, Wiradjuri, Bardi, or Wik Munkan,
or by regional group names such as Koories, Murris, Noongahs, Nyoongars,
Nungas etc. Where there can be a distinction, appropriate terms may be used,
but generally we need to utilise generic terminology. This is in keeping with the
adoption by many Aboriginal people of the term ‘Dreamings’ which was coined
by WEH Stanner (1965) to represent the myriad individual names for traditional
belief systems.
‘Aborigine’ is a term seen as unacceptable among Aboriginal people today, but
it has been used in this book where it forms part of a direct quote.
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ron hampton and Maree toombs
chaPter 1: culture, IdentIty and IndIgenous australIan PeoPles 5
race
When working in cross-cultural situations, it is important to accept and relate to
individuals from a wide range of backgrounds, without prejudice or preconceptions
based on emotive issues and erroneous ideas. In anthropological terms, race is
an arbitrary classification formerly based on physical characteristics including
skin colour etc., but now is increasingly based on genetic markers, for example
blood groups. It can also refer to a human population whose members share a
greater degree of physical and genetic similarity with one another than with
other humans.
‘Race’ is often used as an anthropological classification, linked to physical
features and characteristics, and is often linked to geographic areas. Research
suggests very limited genetic differences between groups despite widely dispersed
locations. In sociological terms, ‘race’ is applied by one group to members of
another, with characteristics ascribed on the basis of appearance or descent. A
preferable term is ethnicity, which identifies people on the basis of social and
cultural groups based on common origins and cultural traditions.
culture, identity and indigenous people
culture
Howard describes culture as:
the customary, learned manner in which human groups organize their
behaviour and thought in relation to their environment. … how people
act, and especially interact, with one another. … how people perceive,
classify, and interpret their world (1996, p. 11).
Our personal cultural lens influences how we interpret others, and how we behave
in society. Culture is generally accepted to be a learned process while ‘race’ is
associated with perceived inherited characteristics. Relationships between
young and old in each culture exist to teach and reinforce culturally appropriate
behaviours, attitudes and values, following hierarchical stratification of societies.
Examination of culture requires a consistent emphasis on objectivity and an
appreciation that we might not always see things the same way that others do.
Miner (1956), in ‘Body Ritual among the Nacirema’, demonstrated the hidden
aspects of culture, the unseen learned values, beliefs and assumptions on which
overt behaviour is based.
race can define groups
of tribes or peoples who
form a distinctive ethnic
population. It is a term
which is often used but
poorly understood.
ethnicity refers to
belonging to a social and
cultural group based on
common regional origins
and cultural traditions.
Culture is the learned
patterns of thought,
action, understanding
and history through
which we engage
and interact with the
world and other people
around us. culture
provides a framework
in which we develop
our understanding of
customary behaviours,
which may not be
apparent to outsiders.
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6 Part 1: IndIgenous australIans: hIstory, culture and IdentIty
Culture consists of:
− visible (overt) behaviours
− unseen (covert) factors
− underlying (unconscious) issues
− values, beliefs, assumptions.
Understanding behaviour of others is a difficult task, especially as our
societies become more complex, although complexity should not necessarily be
equated with ‘superiority’. Societies change over time, increasing the need to
shift social directions to survive. Increasingly, competitive societies marginalise
less competitive ones, just as dominant groups marginalise subordinate groups.
Societal change promotes adaptation for a suppressed group to become less
different from the dominant group, and thus, less threatening to that group.
In colonisation, power relationships are established as the result of domination
of another culture. These are most obvious in imposed policies, demonstrated by
difference (and hence distance) from the dominant one, for example segregation
of housing, education etc.
At first contact with Europeans, Aboriginal peoples were seen as devoid of
culture in any form: their lack of material belongings, and ‘perceived failure’ to
use the wheel and till the land were seen as evidence of a most ‘primitive’ form of
humankind. Europeans were incapable of comprehending the complex spiritual
and cultural life which Aboriginal cultures encompassed. The British ignored
the capacity of the Aboriginal people to survive and coexist in the world’s most
arid, habitable continent. Aboriginal sustainable patterns of land use had been
developed over many generations reflecting longstanding behaviours designed
to ensure ongoing resource availability. Varied social structures were adapted to
the individual ‘country’, and cultural patterns maintained group viability even
in times of environmental change.
Identity
Individual identityrelates closely to cultural and social identity, which
incorporates roles in a social setting. Identity arises from the adoption of social
roles through personal experience. The individual negotiates the meaning of
his or her identity with family and society members. Social identity can be seen
as the aggregation of group memberships that define the individual and their
positions. Each individual in the community identifies and establishes accepted
relationships and interactions. Identity provides a sense of belonging to a specific
group at family, community or national level.
a further explanation of
‘country’ is outlined in
chapter 4.
Identity describes
an individual’s self-
perception as a discrete,
separate entity with
specific characteristics.
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ron hampton and Maree toombs
chaPter 1: culture, IdentIty and IndIgenous australIan PeoPles 7
Indigenous identity
Indigenousness is an identity constructed, shaped and lived in the
politicized context of contemporary colonialism. The communities,
clans, nations and tribes we call Indigenous peoples are just that:
Indigenous to the lands they inhabit, in contrast to and in contention
with the colonial societies and states that have spread out from Europe
and other centres of empire (Alfred & Corntassel, 2005, p. 597).
Individuals and communities link their Indigenous identity closely with
the country on which it emerged. Tradition (lore and law) and cultural mores
contribute to the identity of the group, and define the individual identity.
Environment, climate, resources and locality impact on lifestyle and cultural
responses to challenges. Successful occupation requires different responses to
environmental conditions such as cold, altitude or aridity, for example extremely
cold-climate cultures develop different social organisations to those in a
rainforest area. Geography contributes to cultural diversity as indigenous groups
retain links to land as the ‘Mother’ or ‘Life-giver’. Colonial cultures perceived
land as an economic asset/possession, a view which has spread globally.
Indigenous cultures
There is no universally agreed name for the peoples whose lives,
conditions and aspirations are [described] … as first peoples, because
their ancestors were the original inhabitants of their lands, since
colonized by foreigners. … [Many refer to them as] indigenous, a term
widely accepted by the peoples themselves, and now adopted by the
United Nations (Burger, 1990, p. 16).
Today’s indigenous peoples are the descendants of the traditional owners
and occupiers of a country or region. They demonstrate diversity in culture,
religion and socio-economic organisation, both historically and currently. Many
reflection point
Identity is a simple yet complex set of ideas, and you may wonder why we are addressing it. a recent commen
a student who had been visiting First nations community health services in canada, and interacting with the lo
people, found an answer to that question. on reflection, she stated that she had not understood how
identity was to indigenous people. however, she now realised that it was central to how they saw themselves,
they were. she said ‘I’m still not sure about what it is, but I get it! I see why!’
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8 Part 1: IndIgenous australIans: hIstory, culture and IdentIty
indigenous people argue that being indigenous is a state of mind and birth; most
retain their connection to traditional lands wherever they reside.
In 1990, the global indigenous population was approximately 300 million
across more than 70 countries (Burger, 1990). Indigenous groups are spread across
all inhabited continents and many islands; representing all regions. They include
the indigenous peoples of North and South America, the Inuit, Aleutians and
Saami of the circumpolar region, the Ma¯ori of New Zealand and many inhabitants
of Europe, Asia and the Pacific region. Most groups have been subject to similar
colonial experiences, characterised by disadvantage, dispossession of traditional
lands, and loss or dilution of culture. Colonialism continues to occur wherever
dominant cultures attempt to suppress the traditional cultures within their
sphere of influence.
In the ‘global society’, so-called ‘simple’ societies are seen to be lacking in
technology. Some refuse to be influenced by or accept this, for example New
Guinea Highlander groups. Using traditional husbandry of their environment,
they contribute to sustainable development in the environment upon which
they have depended. Over generations, they have developed understanding and
respect for all living things in their world. Concepts of time, competition and
resource exploitation are not fundamental to indigenous people. Colonising
intruders raise tension or conflict between traditional cultural values and the
expectations of the introduced consumer-based, individual-oriented society.
Most ‘simple’ societies had complex kinship and relationship structures which
were meticulously handed down over generations to ensure survival. These
existed/exist in a spiritual as well as social context, and contain complexities
that Western languages lack the capacity to describe. Many indigenous people
retain a conscious spirituality within rich and diverse cultures and languages.
Aboriginal Australians refer to traditional lands as ‘Country’, and are central
to identity. Aboriginal people relate family to ‘country’, and acceptance by others
often relies on being able to identify ancestral lands. Yami Lester, a Maralinga
man who was blinded following the nuclear testing on his homelands, states an
Indigenous view of his ‘country’:
The country wasn’t just hills or creeks or trees. And I didn’t feel like it
was fairy tales they told me. It was real, our kuuti, the force that gives
us life. Somebody created it, and whoever created it did it for us, so we
could live and hunt and have a good time. That’s how we come to be
here because that malu and ngintaka created this image for us to live
and breathe: the plants, the language, the people (Lester, 1993, p. 10).
The attitudes of many indigenous people reflect Lester’s perceptions of himself
and his people as part of the landscape. Yami’s identity is inextricably linked to
‘Country’ is the ‘estate’
or central lands which
are traditionally
occupied by distinct
cultural groups (stanner,
1965).
aboriginal australian
is a person who is
a member of the
aboriginal people of
australia, who identifies
as an aboriginal person
and is accepted by the
aboriginal community
as an aboriginal person.
(aborigines is not a
commonly used term
among aboriginal
people today, and can be
viewed as offensive.)
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ron hampton and Maree toombs
chaPter 1: culture, IdentIty and IndIgenous australIan PeoPles 9
‘country’ (i.e. land which his people historically occupied). Because Aboriginal
Australians see ‘country’ as the central aspect of identity for them, the invasion
and occupation of their land did not simply amount to a physical loss of territory
and sovereignty. Occupation and colonialism impacted far beyond the physical
on Indigenous Australians bringing disruption or loss of language, beliefs and
social structures which form the underlying basis of culture.
contemporary issues for indigenous people
Globally, contemporary issues among indigenous people include racial discrim-
ination, poor health and access to health services, levels of employment and
education, loss of traditional languages, cultural survival (as minorities) and
Indigenous Intellectual Property Rights (IIPR). Traditional indigenous regions
experience cultural conflict and suppression, resulting from exploitation of
resource-rich traditional areas. These include: degradation and clearing of native
forests in South America, leading to the displacement of indigenous tribes, and
loss of the traditional lands; for the Inuit and Saami of the Arctic Circle, the
impacts of increasing exploitation of oil reserves are seen as threats to traditional
lands and lifestyles; in parts of Africa, civil war and ethnic conflicts have
resulted in food shortages and displacement; in China’s disputed regions of Tibet
and Xingjian Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR) government policies, together
with the imposition of Mandarin as the official teaching language, is reducing
traditional cultures, languages and ways of life.
Many of the world’s staple foods including potatoes, lentils, peas, sugar
cane, garlic, peppers and tomatoes were first cultivated by indigenous people.
We have incorporated words, for example, canoe, barbecue, squash, kangaroo
from indigenous languages. Approximately 75% of the world’s plant-based
pharmaceuticals for example aspirin, digitalis and quinine, have been derived
from medicinal plants found in tribal areas. ‘Traditional’ medicines are
increasingly accepted both in practice, and as contributions from traditional
pharmacopoeia.
ask Yourself
What do you consider to be the characteristics of your identity, i.e. specific characteristics
which typify your own cultural group (nationalities/groups)?
how does your cultural background prejudice your interaction with individuals from other
cultures? how would you deal with it in a professional capacity?
culture consists of: visible (overt) behaviours; unseen (covert) factors; underlying
(unconscious) issues; and values, beliefs and assumptions. What do you understand by these
categories?
Indigenous australian
is an aboriginal and/or
torres strait Islander
person. By convention,
the ‘I’ for Indigenous
is capitalised when
referring to australia’s
Indigenous people and
topics.
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10 Part 1: IndIgenous australIans: hIstory, culture and IdentIty
aboriginal and torres strait Islanders and
the australian identity
historic roots of australia’s occupation
Aboriginal Australians have occupied this continent for a period in excess of
60,000 years, and some would suggest more than 100,000 years, before being
invaded by the British colonists. Early occupation of this continent and
surrounding islands occurred when Aboriginal Australians’ ancestors arrived.
Archaeological history of Australia’s occupation is limited but survives in oral
histories among cultural groups and families.
[An] extraordinary pattern of extra clearing of forests by apparently
controlled use of fire is thought to be represented … in the pollen and
charcoal profile from Lake George near Canberra where a controlled
burning regime may have been introduced by about 120,000 BP and
maintained virtually till the present day (Singh, Kershaw, & Clark,
1981, p. 27).
Radiocarbon dating is limited to 40,000 years, and beyond that timeframe,
reflects the same result. Aboriginal occupation sites are found in southern parts
of the continent which also indicate that time frame. Flood (Figure 1. 2004, p. 6)
identifies one such site as Allen’s Cave on the Nullarbor Plain, indicating that
Aboriginal people had occupied the southern lands by then. There are a number
of theories relating to the way in which Australia was populated, but all support
long-term occupation (Flood, 2004, pp. 79–81). Most theories of occupation
identify the north and north-west regions as areas of arrival. Each group adapted
to its own environment, and their belief systems (‘Dreamings’) reflect the ways
in which people identify the land, their environment, and their place among all
other aspects of their universe.
Torres Strait Islander Australians are of Melanesian descent. Occupation of
the islands by the ancestors of modern Torres Strait Islanders occurred following
rises in sea level after the ice age. Recent archaeological evidence suggests
that occupation may have occurred as recently as 1500–2500 BP (Barham, 1999),
and the linkage between the people of the Torres Strait and indigenous people
of Papua New Guinea (PNG) is evident. Family links continue to exist between
PNG and Boigu or Saibai, which lie in close proximity (<10 km) to the PNG coast.
Beliefs and identity on these islands are closely linked with those of nearby
mainland PNG communities.
this estimate has
since been revised by
approximately half. It
is still an extraordinary
period for occupation of
the southern areas of
the continent.
torres Strait Islander
is a person/descendant
from people from islands
of the torres strait
located to the north of
mainland australia.
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ron hampton and Maree toombs
chaPter 1: culture, IdentIty and IndIgenous australIan PeoPles 11
contemporary australians
Australia’s multiculturalism is firmly entrenched, as is globalisation, bringing
with it the necessity for peaceful coexistence in extremely diverse environments
and circumstances. We need to challenge our view of the national identity! If
Australian people are to live together harmoniously we must, as a nation, develop
an understanding and appreciation of our differences and the benefits that
diversity can afford us all. Health professionals need to display harmony and
understanding with patients of different cultures, and be well-informed on the
social and cultural background of ‘others’, regardless of personal cultural history.
It is essential to examine cultural experiences from others’ perspectives.
aboriginal and torres strait Islander australians
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, the original inhabitants of this
land, continue to find themselves located in a separate social stratum while
maintaining their connection to ‘country’ and family. As a minority of the
population, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people retain links to some of
the oldest spiritual belief systems in the world. Many Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander peoples retain pride in their heritage while participating in all areas of
contemporary life, for example education, employment, industry and community.
Australia fails to acknowledge contemporary and historic contributions by
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to the development of Australia’s
economy, for example Aboriginal labour was central to development of the
nation’s pastoral industry.
other australians
Most immigrant traditions have bases in exploitation of the land and with the
accumulation of possessions and wealth. This leads to divisions (class, social
status etc.), and allocates relative positions to groups or individuals based on
power and influence. Perceptions of social and economic position are often
associated with other characteristics such as race, ethnicity, skin colour and,
more recently, with religious affiliation. Ethnocentric views based on British
heritage have ignored the contributions of diverse ethnic groups to our emerging
nation. In Australia, multiculturalism is a current reality, as is globalisation,
bringing with it the necessity for peaceful coexistence in extremely diverse
environments and circumstances.
The arrival of the first ‘boat people’ from Great Britain (the First Fleet) included
convicts, soldiers, sailors and officers. This, and subsequent penal fleets were
followed by large numbers of immigrants of diverse origins. The influx rapidly
increased with the gold rushes of the nineteenth century and many nationalities
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12 Part 1: IndIgenous australIans: hIstory, culture and IdentIty
came to Australia including large contingents of Irish, Germans, and Chinese.
Colonial governments did little to integrate these migrants into the ‘Australian’
community. The majority of immigrant Australians came to this nation in search
of a better life for themselves and their children. They brought attitudes, values
and beliefs derived from a wide range of traditions.
The White Australia policy was instituted in 1901 as a result of the colonial
descendants’ desire to maintain their perceived cultural and social superiority.
It was devised to ensure that the population of this country would be principally
white. Arising from this ideology were inaccurate, idealised Australian identities
which focused on the perceived character traits of the ‘heroic, sun-burned bushie’,
and later the ‘bronzed sporting hero’. In reality, few Australians refl ected these
characteristics, which ignored the diversity of our society.
Fact Box 1.1
approximately 37% of australians identifi ed themselves as australian descent in the 2
census—48% are of British descent, 12% from other european countries, 3% of chinese desc
and 1% of Indian origin (australian Bureau of statistics, 2007a). the 2006 census iden
people from 270 nations as residents of this country.
Perceptions of Indigenous australians’
identity
While Australia’s population consists of people from a wide variety of cultural
sources, the role and place of Indigenous Australians in perceptions of national
identity is generally neglected.
Until the latter part of the twentieth century, Australia ignored the existence
of, and earlier occupation by, Indigenous Australians in their society and
surroundings. Exclusion of Indigenous Australians from society impacted on
their place as part of the society, and denied acceptance and recognition of
their part in the nation’s history. Until the late 1970s, many Indigenous people
continued to experience segregation on reserves and ‘settlements’ located on the
outskirts of towns. Reminders of these lines of exclusion for Aboriginal people
from the ‘white’ community exist in many towns e.g. Brisbane.
Fact Box 1.2
street names which are a reminder of our racist past … Boundary st, West end. Boundary st,
hill, Boundary roads in camp hill, Bardon, thornlands, rocklea and Indooroopilly.
australia’s approach
to immigration was
the imposition of the
White australia policy
from federation until
the latter part of the
twentieth century.
australian governments
gradually dismantled the
policy from about 1950
until 1973.
the White australia
policy had its roots
before federation:
white miners attacked
chinese diggers in
Victoria and new south
Wales; factory workers
opposed immigration
which might threaten
their jobs. leading
nsW and Victorian
politicians warned there
would be no place for
’asiatics’ or ‘coloureds’
in the australia of the
future. In 1901, the new
federal government
passed the Immigration
Restriction Act 1901,
placing restrictions on
immigration. one of the
restrictions included a
dictation test which was
used to exclude certain
applicants by requiring
them to pass a written
test often in a language
nominated by an
immigration offi cer, and
foreign to the applicant.
(australian government,
department of
Immigration and
citizenship 2009)
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chaPter 1: culture, IdentIty and IndIgenous australIan PeoPles 13
Personal story
I am an aboriginal woman who grew up not knowing
much about my aboriginal heritage. the reason for this
is because I was born when it was not safe to say you
were aboriginal for fear of government repercussions.
My father would tell my brother and me that we should
tell people we came from the Islands. My brother and
me would laughabout this and say, ‘I wonderwhat
Island we are supposed to have come from?’ the irony
in all of this being that the whole town knew we were
aboriginal. our mother was clearly of aboriginal heritage.
We were teased and called such names as ‘abo’, ‘Boong’
and ‘nigger’. looking back, if I had known more about my
Most of these streets and roads were called Boundary because they represented the former
town boundaries that Indigenous people were not permitted to cross at certain times on certain
days in 19th-century Brisbane.
… aboriginal people were exiled beyond the boundary lines after 4 pm six days a week and
completely on sundays. troopers rode the perimeter cracking stockwhips. (condon, 2010)
Around cities and towns, Aboriginal people were generally confi ned to
‘reserves’ on the outskirts, even after the 1967 Referendum. For many, the cost of
straying across the boundaries, of being ‘Off the Reserve’, was a period in custody.
Few members of the broader Australian community had the opportunity to interact
and get to know and understand Indigenous individuals and their cultures. The
vast majority of the population relied on the images and representations found in
the media. In the 1994 Wentworth Lecture, Mick Dodson said:
In all these representations, these supposed ‘truths’ about us, our voices
have been noticeably absent. … as my colleague Marcia Langton so
poignantly wrote, the majority of Australians ‘… do not know how to
relate to Aboriginal people. They relate to stories told by former colonists’
(Langton, 1993). So today, even to talk about Aboriginality is to enter a
labyrinth full of obscure passages, ambiguous signs and trapdoors. The
moment the question is asked, ‘who or what is Aboriginal?’, you enter
a historical landscape full of absolute and timeless truths which have
been set in place by self-professed experts and authorities all too ready
to tell us, and the world the meaning of Aboriginality (Dodson, 1994).
Issues of identity and knowledge of their culture were often denied to Aboriginal
individuals. Their experiences highlight issues of racism and poor self-image.
Many Indigenous Australians have similar stories to those of Maree Toombs who
faced school-based discrimination, and expectations that she would know about
traditional history.
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14 Part 1: IndIgenous australIans: hIstory, culture and IdentIty
Australia needs to embrace its diverse origins: we need to acknowledge the
history and contributions of all ethno-cultural groups within our nation, and
ask what it is to be Australian. Indigenous Australians were fi rst included in the
1971 census, but numbers of Indigenous Australians identifying in the census
are increasing.
Fact Box 1.3
− at 30 June 2006, the Indigenous estimated resident population of australia was 517,200
or 2.5% of the total population. this Indigenous population estimate was 14% higher than
the 2006 unadjusted census count (455,028).
− In 2006, 455,028 aboriginal and torres strait Islander people were counted in the census,
which represents an increase of 11% between the 2001 and 2006 censuses.
− over the past 20 years, the census count of Indigenous people has doubled from 227,593
in 1986. this high level of growth is a result of natural increase (the excess of births over
deaths) and non-demographic factors such as people identifying their Indigenous origin
for the fi rst time in the census (australian Bureau of statistics, 2007b).
Accurate numbers for Indigenous Australians are diffi cult to obtain despite
efforts of the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). In attempting to determine
the number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in Australia, the ABS
faces a number of hurdles including a persistent reluctance to identify Indigenous
status to offi cialdom, varying degrees of geographic isolation, and limited levels
of literacy linked with unfamiliarity with forms. Reluctance refl ects periods
when Aboriginal babies were, by law, automatically declared ‘neglected’ and
taken from their mothers (known as the ‘Stolen Generations’).
Another factor is the stigma which is still associated with being Aboriginal
or Torres Strait Islander. Many Indigenous Australians have suffered racism in
heritage and felt a pride for it, I would have been less
aff ected by the taunts.
When I was in year fi ve the teacher asked us all
to colour in a picture of an aboriginal man smiling as
the ‘First Fleet’ sailedinto BotanyBay.the teacher
turned to me and said, ‘you’re aboriginal, what do think
about this?’ I shrugged my shoulders and said, ‘I don’t
know’. I remember being very embarrassed that she had
singled me out. I didn’t want to be diff erent: I wanted to
be like everyone else.
these days, I know who I am and where I come from,
I know my identity and am proud to say that I am an
aboriginal woman. as for the teacher and that picture,
I could now say that man would have been from the eora
tribe in sydney. he was part of a complex kinship system
and his peoplehad lived that way for over 40,000
years. he would not have been smiling, and he didn’t
know it yet but his life was about to change forever.
(toombs, 2011)
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