Essay: Analyzing Health Determinants in Indigenous Australia
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This essay critically examines the determinants of health impacting Indigenous Australians, focusing on factors such as racism, education, employment, community safety, and their complex interrelationships. It highlights how racism, stemming from historical oppression and colonization, continues to affect both physical and mental health, creating health disparities. The essay further explores the impact of education and employment on health outcomes, demonstrating how lower educational attainment and limited employment opportunities contribute to poorer health among Indigenous Australians. The role of community safety is also discussed, emphasizing the adverse effects of violence and unsafe environments on the health and well-being of Indigenous communities. The paper underscores the need for policies and interventions to address these determinants and reduce health disparities.
Running Head: DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
Determinants of Health
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Determinants of Health
Students Name
University Affiliation
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DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
2
Determinants of Health
Introduction
Over the years, colonized nations like Australia, New Zealand/Aotearoa, the United
States of America, Canada, and Latin America have come up with research evidence as well as
government policies recognizing the need to enhance the poor state of health of the indigenous
people. Nevertheless, success in reducing disparities has been restricted. The indigenous people
have worse health status than non-indigenous people, they have lower life expectancies, and are
over-represented amongst the disadvantaged and poor people (Alvidrez et al. 2019). These
disparities are greater in Australia than any other country and are brought by health determinants
like education, employment, housing, location, community safety, transport health lifestyles and
behaviors. This paper will critically discus the determinates of health among the indigenous
people in Australia.
Racism and health
Racism is considered as a basic social determinate of health in which institutional and
interpersonal racist behavior and attitudes are normally embedded in political, social, and
structural contexts. Studies have found out that perceptions or experiences of racism have been
linked with poorer physical and mental health of people. There have been systematic reviews of
research between 2005 and 2007 associating health and racial disparities and focusing on the
African Americans in the united states of America (Hamilton, 2014). The reviews revealed that
there were inverse interactions between racial discrimination with poor physical and mental
health. Racism in Australia has its origin in the adverse effects on indigenous people of
oppression and colonization powerfully described in stolen generation stories in the ringing them
home report. Research has revealed that racism happened institutionally and interpersonally in
all sectors with the indigenous people getting less benefit from similar regulations and policies
than other Australians. They were also subjected to disparaging comments in both social and
health contexts. Presently, whiteness underpins the reproduction as well as production of
dominance instead of subordination, privilege instead of disadvantage, normativity instead of
marginalization.
2
Determinants of Health
Introduction
Over the years, colonized nations like Australia, New Zealand/Aotearoa, the United
States of America, Canada, and Latin America have come up with research evidence as well as
government policies recognizing the need to enhance the poor state of health of the indigenous
people. Nevertheless, success in reducing disparities has been restricted. The indigenous people
have worse health status than non-indigenous people, they have lower life expectancies, and are
over-represented amongst the disadvantaged and poor people (Alvidrez et al. 2019). These
disparities are greater in Australia than any other country and are brought by health determinants
like education, employment, housing, location, community safety, transport health lifestyles and
behaviors. This paper will critically discus the determinates of health among the indigenous
people in Australia.
Racism and health
Racism is considered as a basic social determinate of health in which institutional and
interpersonal racist behavior and attitudes are normally embedded in political, social, and
structural contexts. Studies have found out that perceptions or experiences of racism have been
linked with poorer physical and mental health of people. There have been systematic reviews of
research between 2005 and 2007 associating health and racial disparities and focusing on the
African Americans in the united states of America (Hamilton, 2014). The reviews revealed that
there were inverse interactions between racial discrimination with poor physical and mental
health. Racism in Australia has its origin in the adverse effects on indigenous people of
oppression and colonization powerfully described in stolen generation stories in the ringing them
home report. Research has revealed that racism happened institutionally and interpersonally in
all sectors with the indigenous people getting less benefit from similar regulations and policies
than other Australians. They were also subjected to disparaging comments in both social and
health contexts. Presently, whiteness underpins the reproduction as well as production of
dominance instead of subordination, privilege instead of disadvantage, normativity instead of
marginalization.
DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
3
People identify others and themselves by being socialized within race ideologies and
concepts in which particular population define and determine boundaries of inclusion as well as
exclude others who not fit their criteria (Straiton et al. 2014). In spite Australia present effort to
minimize racism and her ratification of the United Declaration on rights of indigenous people
cases of adverse effects of racism continue. It should be noted aboriginals have the right to
access devoid of any discrimination, all health and social services as well as have the right to
have an equal right to enjoy maximum attainable level of mental and physical health. Thus,
states are required to take appropriate steps with the view of realizing progressively maximum
achievement of this right (Priest et al. 2016). To succeed, there must be countering effects of
racism to minimize health disparities between indigenous and non-indigenous people. in the
country, non-indigenous dominance is legitimated as normal social order in which indigenous
people are treated as inferior people as well denied basic resources. The idea of symbolic
violence has largely contributed to the theory of socialization in which different ways of acting
and thinking are accepted without criticizing them. studies on whiteness critically evaluate the
role dominant culture of the whites play across cultural settings and assume race as a social
construction in which explanations-based biology are not sufficient to explain the production and
reproduction of economic and political disparities along racial settings. Racism is one of the
serious health determinants that has influenced and shaped the health of both aboriginal and non-
indigenous Australian. Indigenous people have greatly suffered due to racial discrimination and
the government must come up with strict and strong polices and regulations to eliminate racial
discrimination of the indigenous people.
Education and health
Education can determine and influence health via a range of intricate mechanisms such as
access to health care and income as well as the active participation in the labor market.
Attainment of education can be linked to developing cognitive and information skills, choices, as
well as participation in public and social networks (Tooth & Mishra, 2015). Moreover, education
has been found to be firmly linked to determinants of health like preventable service use and
risky health attributes. in Australia, relative to rest of the people, aboriginals are disadvantaged
across a host of outcomes. Not only is lower life expectancy but lower income. Moreover, the
incidences of a host of chronic conditions is much greater particularly in managing and
3
People identify others and themselves by being socialized within race ideologies and
concepts in which particular population define and determine boundaries of inclusion as well as
exclude others who not fit their criteria (Straiton et al. 2014). In spite Australia present effort to
minimize racism and her ratification of the United Declaration on rights of indigenous people
cases of adverse effects of racism continue. It should be noted aboriginals have the right to
access devoid of any discrimination, all health and social services as well as have the right to
have an equal right to enjoy maximum attainable level of mental and physical health. Thus,
states are required to take appropriate steps with the view of realizing progressively maximum
achievement of this right (Priest et al. 2016). To succeed, there must be countering effects of
racism to minimize health disparities between indigenous and non-indigenous people. in the
country, non-indigenous dominance is legitimated as normal social order in which indigenous
people are treated as inferior people as well denied basic resources. The idea of symbolic
violence has largely contributed to the theory of socialization in which different ways of acting
and thinking are accepted without criticizing them. studies on whiteness critically evaluate the
role dominant culture of the whites play across cultural settings and assume race as a social
construction in which explanations-based biology are not sufficient to explain the production and
reproduction of economic and political disparities along racial settings. Racism is one of the
serious health determinants that has influenced and shaped the health of both aboriginal and non-
indigenous Australian. Indigenous people have greatly suffered due to racial discrimination and
the government must come up with strict and strong polices and regulations to eliminate racial
discrimination of the indigenous people.
Education and health
Education can determine and influence health via a range of intricate mechanisms such as
access to health care and income as well as the active participation in the labor market.
Attainment of education can be linked to developing cognitive and information skills, choices, as
well as participation in public and social networks (Tooth & Mishra, 2015). Moreover, education
has been found to be firmly linked to determinants of health like preventable service use and
risky health attributes. in Australia, relative to rest of the people, aboriginals are disadvantaged
across a host of outcomes. Not only is lower life expectancy but lower income. Moreover, the
incidences of a host of chronic conditions is much greater particularly in managing and
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controlling for younger age profile (Gourevitch et al. 2019). There are a host of interrelated
economic, social and historic reasons for these poorer outcomes and one vital factor is likely to
be substantially reduced levels of education. Aboriginal Australians are much less likely to
complete high school whole those who complete high school, education is less likely to proceed
to university or post-high school studies. in the country, the gradient in the outcomes of health by
the attainment of education has deepened over the years. in all the regions in Australia,
producing a bigger gap in health status between indigenous and non-indigenous people. Among
the Australians without high school diploma, particularly the indigenous Australians, life
expectancy has reduced tremendously whereas it has increased among the non-indigenous
people. mortality rates have declined among the most educated Australians, that is, the non-
indigenous people, accompanied by increasing or steady mortality rates among the least educated
indigenous people (Ward, O’Sullivan & Buykx, 2018).
Questions have been asked as to what accounts for the increasing health disparities which
exist among the people with lower level of education? Is it the connected to what they learn in
school like how to live a health life or socioeconomic disadvantage which come from an
education? It should be noted that among the most vital explanations for the relationship between
education and health is that education produces advantages which consequently predispose the
recipient to improved health results. Education can impart different benefits which enhance the
trajectory of health of an individual. It plays a role in human capital by creating an array of traits
as well as skills like cognitive skills, learned effectiveness, personal control, and ability to solve
problems (van Lieshout & Dawson, 2016). These links can mediate the association between
health and education. Thus, an individual who has a higher level of education will be informed
about health effects of a disease. He or she will have better ways of dealing with the negative
impacts of the disease compared to the person having lower level of education. The aboriginals
have lower educational attainment, thus, have suffered the negative impacts of health outcomes.
Employment and income as health determinants
The literature is convincing and clear concerning roles of different elements of
socioeconomic status in influencing health. Aboriginal people have been not been allowed to
access to basic and fundamental resources as well as conditions needed to fully benefit from the
socioeconomic status (MacKinnon, 2015). The disadvantage is presently manifest in high rate of
4
controlling for younger age profile (Gourevitch et al. 2019). There are a host of interrelated
economic, social and historic reasons for these poorer outcomes and one vital factor is likely to
be substantially reduced levels of education. Aboriginal Australians are much less likely to
complete high school whole those who complete high school, education is less likely to proceed
to university or post-high school studies. in the country, the gradient in the outcomes of health by
the attainment of education has deepened over the years. in all the regions in Australia,
producing a bigger gap in health status between indigenous and non-indigenous people. Among
the Australians without high school diploma, particularly the indigenous Australians, life
expectancy has reduced tremendously whereas it has increased among the non-indigenous
people. mortality rates have declined among the most educated Australians, that is, the non-
indigenous people, accompanied by increasing or steady mortality rates among the least educated
indigenous people (Ward, O’Sullivan & Buykx, 2018).
Questions have been asked as to what accounts for the increasing health disparities which
exist among the people with lower level of education? Is it the connected to what they learn in
school like how to live a health life or socioeconomic disadvantage which come from an
education? It should be noted that among the most vital explanations for the relationship between
education and health is that education produces advantages which consequently predispose the
recipient to improved health results. Education can impart different benefits which enhance the
trajectory of health of an individual. It plays a role in human capital by creating an array of traits
as well as skills like cognitive skills, learned effectiveness, personal control, and ability to solve
problems (van Lieshout & Dawson, 2016). These links can mediate the association between
health and education. Thus, an individual who has a higher level of education will be informed
about health effects of a disease. He or she will have better ways of dealing with the negative
impacts of the disease compared to the person having lower level of education. The aboriginals
have lower educational attainment, thus, have suffered the negative impacts of health outcomes.
Employment and income as health determinants
The literature is convincing and clear concerning roles of different elements of
socioeconomic status in influencing health. Aboriginal people have been not been allowed to
access to basic and fundamental resources as well as conditions needed to fully benefit from the
socioeconomic status (MacKinnon, 2015). The disadvantage is presently manifest in high rate of
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DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
5
unemployment, unsustainable and poor settlement services, low educational attainment, as well
as literacy, meager community resources, and scarce economic opportunities. With respect to
poverty particularly, the most broadly discussed effect of poverty is inability to access material
resources like food rich in nutrients, that leads to high levels of diabetes and obesity as well as
the consequent renal and cardiovascular health. Poverty is also associated with the social
segregation, high number of illegal activities like crime and reduced public cohesion. In the case
of the indigenous groups, social segregating in turn, inhibits people from pursuing training as
well as education. It should be noted that more profound is the inadequate control poverty leads,
with the resulting anxiety, low self-esteem, feelings of hopelessness and insecurity (Struffolino,
Bernardi & Voorpostel, 2016). The negative impacts coupled with other types of psychosocial
stress have been associated with poor parenting, addictions, violence, as well as inadequate
social support. Moreover, the increase in these psychosocial stressors normally results in poor
mental and physical health and enhanced vulnerability to diseases, hypertension, diabetes and
depression.
It should be known that the indigenous people are less likely to participate in economy
(Milner et al. 2014). They are less likely to participate in the labor force as well as less likely to
have gainful employment opportunities. However, if they are in labor force, their unemployment
level is between two and four times greater than other Australians. The paper has established that
the indigenous people in Australia are less likely to have adequate income. When they do get
employment opportunities, their yearly earnings from employments are significantly lower than
they are for the non-indigenous people in the country. The same trend has been observed when
the same groups work full time, part time, full year or part of the year. Furthermore, sharper
inequalities have been observed when total income is considered among the aboriginal and non-
indigenous people in the country. The paper has already suggested that level of income has an
impact on the outcomes of health (Markwick et al. 2014). It should be noted that health status
seen between the aboriginal and non-indigenous people can be described by the fact that the tow
populations vary in other, health determining factors like education and income. When
indigenous and non-indigenous adults are compared at similar level of income, variations in the
likelihood of suffering from depression continue to be seen. Therefore, if the gap between
indigenous and non-indigenous people, employment opportunities and level of income must be
improved among the aboriginals.
5
unemployment, unsustainable and poor settlement services, low educational attainment, as well
as literacy, meager community resources, and scarce economic opportunities. With respect to
poverty particularly, the most broadly discussed effect of poverty is inability to access material
resources like food rich in nutrients, that leads to high levels of diabetes and obesity as well as
the consequent renal and cardiovascular health. Poverty is also associated with the social
segregation, high number of illegal activities like crime and reduced public cohesion. In the case
of the indigenous groups, social segregating in turn, inhibits people from pursuing training as
well as education. It should be noted that more profound is the inadequate control poverty leads,
with the resulting anxiety, low self-esteem, feelings of hopelessness and insecurity (Struffolino,
Bernardi & Voorpostel, 2016). The negative impacts coupled with other types of psychosocial
stress have been associated with poor parenting, addictions, violence, as well as inadequate
social support. Moreover, the increase in these psychosocial stressors normally results in poor
mental and physical health and enhanced vulnerability to diseases, hypertension, diabetes and
depression.
It should be known that the indigenous people are less likely to participate in economy
(Milner et al. 2014). They are less likely to participate in the labor force as well as less likely to
have gainful employment opportunities. However, if they are in labor force, their unemployment
level is between two and four times greater than other Australians. The paper has established that
the indigenous people in Australia are less likely to have adequate income. When they do get
employment opportunities, their yearly earnings from employments are significantly lower than
they are for the non-indigenous people in the country. The same trend has been observed when
the same groups work full time, part time, full year or part of the year. Furthermore, sharper
inequalities have been observed when total income is considered among the aboriginal and non-
indigenous people in the country. The paper has already suggested that level of income has an
impact on the outcomes of health (Markwick et al. 2014). It should be noted that health status
seen between the aboriginal and non-indigenous people can be described by the fact that the tow
populations vary in other, health determining factors like education and income. When
indigenous and non-indigenous adults are compared at similar level of income, variations in the
likelihood of suffering from depression continue to be seen. Therefore, if the gap between
indigenous and non-indigenous people, employment opportunities and level of income must be
improved among the aboriginals.
DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
6
Community safety as a health determinant among the aboriginals
Experiencing violence or threats, staying in an environment in which the safety of an
individual is at risk or in social setting in which criminal activities like violnece is rampant has
adverse health impacts. Level of experienced by the aboriginals in Australia is also faced in the
context of segregation, colonization, as well as the consequent markers of disadvantage like
inadequate access to conventional lands, unemployment, low income level, substance abuse (De
Wet, Somefun & Rambau, 2018). It should be noted that safe places in the communities are
places whereby individuals are highly to face pride, empowerment, resilience, wellbeing, and
security. The burden of injury and disease study ranked violence as well as homicide as the ninth
biggest contributor to the entire burden of injury or disease for the aboriginals. For the aboriginal
females, close romantic partner abuse has been reported as a health risk facet accounting for
5.5% of the burden of injury and disease, with its effects not only via violence and homicide but
also depression and anxiety (Leske et al. 2014), suicide, cardiovascular diseases, as well as other
diseases. A report done 2008, reported that 25% of the aboriginal adults have been victims of
threatened or physical violence in the last twelve months, thrice the rate for non-indigenous
people. Between 2012 and 2013, 14% of the indigenous people stated family stressors relating to
the negative feeling unsafe or witnessed violence (Lenhart et al. 2017) 8% of the indigenous
people reported stressor linked to violent crime or abuse. similar number of indigenous women
(14%) and men (13%) reported stressors because of having trouble with the law enforcement
agencies like the police and were six times likely to report such stressors compared with other
Australians.
Between 2011 and 2013, the rate of hospitalization for assault among the aboriginals
were highest in rural and very remote regions of the country compared to major cities. Moreover,
the rates were highest among the 25-45-year aboriginals (Koelmeyer et al. 2014). A similar
pattern to the rate of hospitalization has been evident in the mortality rates linked to assault.
There have been 190 aboriginal deaths from 2008 to 2012 because of assault. The death rates for
assault for the aboriginal Australians was approximately seven times the degree of other
Australians in this duration. Moreover, rates of mortality were highest among individual aged
between 35 and 44 years. Having a safe local community to reside in is vital to bridging the gap
in the aboriginal disadvantage. All people in Australia accepted the national plan to minimize
6
Community safety as a health determinant among the aboriginals
Experiencing violence or threats, staying in an environment in which the safety of an
individual is at risk or in social setting in which criminal activities like violnece is rampant has
adverse health impacts. Level of experienced by the aboriginals in Australia is also faced in the
context of segregation, colonization, as well as the consequent markers of disadvantage like
inadequate access to conventional lands, unemployment, low income level, substance abuse (De
Wet, Somefun & Rambau, 2018). It should be noted that safe places in the communities are
places whereby individuals are highly to face pride, empowerment, resilience, wellbeing, and
security. The burden of injury and disease study ranked violence as well as homicide as the ninth
biggest contributor to the entire burden of injury or disease for the aboriginals. For the aboriginal
females, close romantic partner abuse has been reported as a health risk facet accounting for
5.5% of the burden of injury and disease, with its effects not only via violence and homicide but
also depression and anxiety (Leske et al. 2014), suicide, cardiovascular diseases, as well as other
diseases. A report done 2008, reported that 25% of the aboriginal adults have been victims of
threatened or physical violence in the last twelve months, thrice the rate for non-indigenous
people. Between 2012 and 2013, 14% of the indigenous people stated family stressors relating to
the negative feeling unsafe or witnessed violence (Lenhart et al. 2017) 8% of the indigenous
people reported stressor linked to violent crime or abuse. similar number of indigenous women
(14%) and men (13%) reported stressors because of having trouble with the law enforcement
agencies like the police and were six times likely to report such stressors compared with other
Australians.
Between 2011 and 2013, the rate of hospitalization for assault among the aboriginals
were highest in rural and very remote regions of the country compared to major cities. Moreover,
the rates were highest among the 25-45-year aboriginals (Koelmeyer et al. 2014). A similar
pattern to the rate of hospitalization has been evident in the mortality rates linked to assault.
There have been 190 aboriginal deaths from 2008 to 2012 because of assault. The death rates for
assault for the aboriginal Australians was approximately seven times the degree of other
Australians in this duration. Moreover, rates of mortality were highest among individual aged
between 35 and 44 years. Having a safe local community to reside in is vital to bridging the gap
in the aboriginal disadvantage. All people in Australia accepted the national plan to minimize
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DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
7
violence against children and their mothers between 2010 and 2022, that entails a particular
emphasis on the aboriginal family violence. The government strategy for the indigenous
advancement entails wellbeing and safety program to improve aboriginal community safety as
well as wellbeing via funding.
Conclusion
Health determinants in Australia like education, racism and racial discrimination,
employment and income, and community have led to health disparity between indigenous and
non-indigenous population in Australia. The aboriginals have been disadvantaged in the country
due to political, economic, social and historic factors which have fueled the prevalence of the
health determinants. The government should come up policies and regulations to bridge the gap
between the aboriginals and other Australians in terms of health (Perry-Jenkins et al. 2017).
7
violence against children and their mothers between 2010 and 2022, that entails a particular
emphasis on the aboriginal family violence. The government strategy for the indigenous
advancement entails wellbeing and safety program to improve aboriginal community safety as
well as wellbeing via funding.
Conclusion
Health determinants in Australia like education, racism and racial discrimination,
employment and income, and community have led to health disparity between indigenous and
non-indigenous population in Australia. The aboriginals have been disadvantaged in the country
due to political, economic, social and historic factors which have fueled the prevalence of the
health determinants. The government should come up policies and regulations to bridge the gap
between the aboriginals and other Australians in terms of health (Perry-Jenkins et al. 2017).
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DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
8
References
Alvidrez, J, Castille, D, Laude-Sharp, M, Rosario, A & Tabor, D 2019, ‘The National Institute
on Minority Health and Health Disparities Research Framework’, American Journal of Public
Health, vol. 109, pp. S16–S20. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304883
De Wet, N, Somefun, O & Rambau, N 2018, ‘Perceptions of community safety and social
activity participation among youth in South Africa’, PLoS ONE, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 1–11.
Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0197549
Gourevitch, MN, Athens, JK, Levine, SE, Kleiman, N & Thorpe, LE 2019, ‘City-Level
Measures of Health, Health Determinants, and Equity to Foster Population Health Improvement:
The City Health Dashboard’, American Journal of Public Health, vol. 109, no. 4, pp. 585–592.
Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304903
Hamilton, TG 2014, ‘Do Country-of-Origin Characteristics Help Explain Variation in Health
Among Black Immigrants in the United States?’, Social Science Quarterly (Wiley-Blackwell),
vol. 95, no. 3, pp. 817–834. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12063
Koelmeyer, R, English, DR, Smith, A & Grierson, J 2014, ‘Association of social determinants of
health with self-rated health among Australian gay and bisexual men living with HIV’, AIDS
Care, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 65–74. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2013.793273
Lenhart, CM, Wiemken, A, Hanlon, A, Perkett, M & Patterson, F 2017, ‘Perceived
neighborhood safety related to physical activity but not recreational screen-based sedentary
behavior in adolescents’, BMC Public Health, vol. 17, pp. 1–9. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4756-z
Leske, S, Young, RM, White, KM & Hawkes, AL 2014, ‘A Qualitative Exploration of Sun
Safety Beliefs Among Australian Adults’, Australian Psychologist, vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 253–270.
Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/ap.12054
MacKinnon, S 2015, Decolonizing Employment: Aboriginal Inclusion in Canada’s Labour
Market, University of Manitoba Press, Winnipeg, Manitoba. Retrieved from
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=1234274&site=ehost-live
8
References
Alvidrez, J, Castille, D, Laude-Sharp, M, Rosario, A & Tabor, D 2019, ‘The National Institute
on Minority Health and Health Disparities Research Framework’, American Journal of Public
Health, vol. 109, pp. S16–S20. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304883
De Wet, N, Somefun, O & Rambau, N 2018, ‘Perceptions of community safety and social
activity participation among youth in South Africa’, PLoS ONE, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 1–11.
Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0197549
Gourevitch, MN, Athens, JK, Levine, SE, Kleiman, N & Thorpe, LE 2019, ‘City-Level
Measures of Health, Health Determinants, and Equity to Foster Population Health Improvement:
The City Health Dashboard’, American Journal of Public Health, vol. 109, no. 4, pp. 585–592.
Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304903
Hamilton, TG 2014, ‘Do Country-of-Origin Characteristics Help Explain Variation in Health
Among Black Immigrants in the United States?’, Social Science Quarterly (Wiley-Blackwell),
vol. 95, no. 3, pp. 817–834. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12063
Koelmeyer, R, English, DR, Smith, A & Grierson, J 2014, ‘Association of social determinants of
health with self-rated health among Australian gay and bisexual men living with HIV’, AIDS
Care, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 65–74. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2013.793273
Lenhart, CM, Wiemken, A, Hanlon, A, Perkett, M & Patterson, F 2017, ‘Perceived
neighborhood safety related to physical activity but not recreational screen-based sedentary
behavior in adolescents’, BMC Public Health, vol. 17, pp. 1–9. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4756-z
Leske, S, Young, RM, White, KM & Hawkes, AL 2014, ‘A Qualitative Exploration of Sun
Safety Beliefs Among Australian Adults’, Australian Psychologist, vol. 49, no. 4, pp. 253–270.
Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/ap.12054
MacKinnon, S 2015, Decolonizing Employment: Aboriginal Inclusion in Canada’s Labour
Market, University of Manitoba Press, Winnipeg, Manitoba. Retrieved from
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=1234274&site=ehost-live
DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH
9
Markwick, A, Ansari, Z, Sullivan, M & McNeil, J 2014, ‘Social determinants and lifestyle risk
factors only partially explain the higher prevalence of food insecurity among Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islanders in the Australian state of Victoria: a cross-sectional study’, BMC Public
Health, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 668–685. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-598
Milner, A, LaMontagne, AD, Aitken, Z, Bentley, R & Kavanagh, AM 2014, ‘Employment status
and mental health among persons with and without a disability: evidence from an Australian
cohort study’, Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, vol. 68, no. 11, pp. 1064–1071.
Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2014-204147
Perry-Jenkins, M, Smith, JZ, Wadsworth, LP & Halpern, HP 2017, ‘Workplace policies and
mental health among working-class, new parents’, Community, Work & Family, vol. 20, no. 2,
pp. 226–249. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2016.1252721
Priest, N, King, T, Bécares, L & Kavanagh, AM 2016, ‘Bullying Victimization and Racial
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10, pp. 1882–1884. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2016.303328
Straiton, M, Grant, JF, Winefield, HR & Taylor, A 2014, ‘Mental health in immigrant men and
women in Australia: the North West Adelaide health study’, BMC Public Health, vol. 14, pp. 1–
15. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-1111
Struffolino, E, Bernardi, L & Voorpostel, M 2016, ‘Self-reported Health among Lone Mothers in
Switzerland: Do Employment and Education Matter?’, Population (00324663), vol. 71, no. 2,
pp. 187–213. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3917/pope.1602.0187
Tooth, L & Mishra, GD 2015, ‘Does Further Education in Adulthood Improve Physical and
Mental Health among Australian Women? A Longitudinal Study’, PLoS ONE, vol. 10, no. 10,
pp. 1–12. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0140334
van Lieshout, E & Dawson, V 2016, ‘Knowledge of, and Attitudes Towards Health-related
Biotechnology Applications Amongst Australian Year 10 High School Students’, Journal of
Biological Education (Routledge), vol. 50, no. 3, pp. 329–344. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.1080/00219266.2015.1117511
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Ward, BM, O’Sullivan, B & Buykx, P 2018, ‘Evaluation of a local government “shelter and van”
intervention to improve safety and reduce alcohol-related harm’, BMC Public Health, vol. 18,
no. 1, p. N.PAG. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-6245-4
10
Ward, BM, O’Sullivan, B & Buykx, P 2018, ‘Evaluation of a local government “shelter and van”
intervention to improve safety and reduce alcohol-related harm’, BMC Public Health, vol. 18,
no. 1, p. N.PAG. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-6245-4
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