Understanding Learning: Theories and Student Behavior in Psychology

This essay provides an introduction to learning theories within the field of educational psychology. It begins by defining learning and its importance, then explores three major theoretical frameworks: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism is presented as focusing on observable behaviors and conditioning, while cognitivism emphasizes information processing and mental activities. Constructivism is described as a perspective where learners actively construct knowledge based on their experiences. The essay discusses the strengths and weaknesses of each theory, providing examples of their application, and concluding that each theory offers valuable insights for understanding the learning process. The behavior of students in a classroom is also explained. The essay highlights the importance of considering the learner's prior knowledge, cognitive demands, and desired outcomes when selecting teaching strategies. This essay is a valuable resource for students studying psychology, providing a comprehensive overview of key learning theories and their implications for education.

Running head: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
Name of the Student
Name of the University
Author note

1INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
Executive summary
The primary aim of the report is to provide an idea about “learning” in the context of
Educational Psychology. It further discusses about the various processes of learning with suitable
examples. The report gives a vivid illustration on the different types of Theories of Learning, the
processes involved as well the disadvantage of a particular learning theory. In conclusion, it can
be said that, every theory has its own significance, and is vital to understand. At the time of
deciding what strategies are to be used, the following points are to be considered: the intensity of
knowledge possessed by the learner; the demands of thought processing, and the outcome which
is desired. The behavior of the students in a classroom in a given situation has also been
explained.

2INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
Table of Contents
Introduction......................................................................................................................................3
Learning Theories............................................................................................................................5
Behaviorism.................................................................................................................................5
Cognitivism..................................................................................................................................7
Constructivism.............................................................................................................................9
Student Behavior.......................................................................................................................12
Critical analysis.........................................................................................................................12
Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................14
References......................................................................................................................................15

3INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
Introduction
Learning is the method of acquisition or gathering of skills or knowledge, which can be
through various means, like through the process of studying, by personal experiences or being
taught. The learning process influences the decisions, attitude, actions and opinion of the people.
It is used in the field of Educational Psychology.
One of the familiar and common way in which people learn, from childhood, is by the
process of observation. Learning by the process of observation involves watching, following,
copying and noting the behavior of others in a particular situation.
A basic example can be taken, that people learn by the process of observation, is ‘talking’
or even ‘walking’. The infants learn to talk by imitating the elders. Observational learning often
happens naturally, and is often not realized by the people (Zentall, 2012).
Another type of learning, which is studied by the Educational Psychologists, is through
conditioning. Conditioning can be of two types, namely, ‘Operant Conditioning’ and ‘Classical
Conditioning’ (Henton & Iversen, 2012). Learning through Classical conditioning involves
association of a particular phenomena or thing pertaining to the environment, and forecasting
what would happen after that. The Russian scientist, Ivan Pavlov, explained classical
conditioning.
Behaviors of dogs were observed. The dogs were given food, after ringing the bell. In
due course, the dogs were accustomed to this. Eventually, they started associating food-delivery
with the sound of the bell. This was evidenced as the dogs would start salivating with
anticipation, even when there would not be any smell or sight of food. It has been regarded that

4INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
this style of learning or making association would be similar in the case of dogs as well as
humans (Ziegler et al., 2012).
Whereas, in case of Operant conditioning, behavior is reinforced with either a
punishment or a reward. The likelihood of a particular behavior increases if it is followed by a
reward. Similarly, the likelihood of a particular behavior decreases if it is followed by a
punishment.
This can be illustrated by an example: like if a particular teacher responds in a positive
manner if many questions are asked, then the students will be encouraged to ask questions. In
case the teacher becomes irritated when questions are being asked, then the students would be
discouraged to ask questions. Social punishments teach the students to not ask questions to that
particular teacher.
Learning Theories
The conceptual framework to describe, how the knowledge is processed, retained and
absorbed during the course of learning is known as Learning Theories. They are a set of
principles used for the purpose of explaining how the knowledge is acquired, retained and
recalled by the individuals. By knowing and studying the various types of theories of learning,
the process of learning can be understood (Herbrich, 2016). The principles state in the theories
could be taken as guidelines for the purpose of selecting techniques, instructional tools as well as
strategies which promote learning (Eysenck, 2013).

5INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
The process of learning can be done individually, as well as in a group, like in case of
Cooperative Learning. Behavior is the mode by which an individual conducts himself, especially
towards the other beings (Dunlosky et al., 2013).
The Learning Theories are: Behaviorism, which says about the behavior changes and the
new behavioral patterns, which are acquired through connection between responses and stimuli.
Cognitivism, which says that processing of information leads to retention and understanding.
Constructivism views that the knowledge of the world is constructed by a person based on one’s
own individual experiences (Pritchard, 2013).
Behaviorism
This learning theory puts a focus on the behaviors that are objectively observable and sets
aside or decreases the independent activities in mind. Learning has been defined by the Behavior
theorists as the acquirement of new behavior on ecological conditions. Behaviorism has come
into existence from the works of B.F.Skinner. The concept of operant conditioning has also
contributed to Behaviorism (Staddon, 2014).
It is believed that knowledge has been existing independently, not within the people. The
theorists view the person who is learning as a blank state of mind and must be provided with
experience in order to learn.
‘Conditioning’ has been recognized by the Behaviorist theorists as a universal learning
process. Two types of conditioning are there, each one yields a dissimilar behavioral pattern:
Classical conditioning takes place when natural reflexes respond to stimuli. As the
individuals are biologically connected, as a result, a particular response would be produced by a

6INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
particular stimulus (Matsumoto et al., 2012). A familiar example of classical conditioning in the
context of educational field is in case of situation where students or children show evidence of
fears that are irrational, and anxieties such as fear to speak in public, fear of failing, general
phobia of school, et cetera.
Operant or Behavioral conditioning takes place when responses to stimuli is
strengthened. In short, operant conditioning has been a plain feedback system: that is, if it is
followed by a reward or reinforcement, then the response has more probability in future.
Similarly, if the response to the stimuli is not followed by a reward or reinforcement, the
response has less probability in future.
Every theory has its pros and cons. The criticism of behaviorism includes: Behaviorism
do not account for every kind of learning, as it does not regard the activities of mind. Some types
of learning have not been explained by Behaviorism–like; the identification of language patterns
that are new, by the young kids; for this no reinforcement mechanism exists (Olson, 2015).
Behaviorism has been based on theory that behavior could be scientifically researched
without depending on the internal mental states. Behaviorism is a form of materialism, which
denies any kind of independent importance of mind. The importance in relation to psychological
treatment has been intense, constructing it as one of the stepping stones of pharmacological
therapy. Some of the recognized behaviorists are Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, Edward
Thorndike, and others.
Cognitivism
In the psychological context, Cognitivism has been considered as a theoretical framework
to understand the mind that gained credibility in 1950s. In response to the movement of

7INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
behaviorism, the movement of Cognitivism took place consequently. The Cognitivists opined
that Behaviorists have neglected to explain the concept of cognition. Behaviorists, on the other
hand, have acknowledged the subsistence of thinking; however, they identified it merely as any
behavior.
The concept or the term of Cognitive Psychology has been derived from the Latin word
‘cognoscere’, which means to know or conceptualize, or gather information. Hence, it can be
summed up as: Cognitive psychology has been a part of Psychology that relates to information-
processing which has been derived in component from the past tradition of the analysis of
problem solving as well as analysis of thought (Kendall & Hollon, 2013).
The revolution of the Cognitivist replaced the movement of behaviorism in the 1960s as
the leading paradigm. The internal mental activities has been focused by Cognitivism that
believes in the concept of exploring the “black box” of human mind that would be important and
essential to understand how learning takes place, by the individuals. Psychological processes like
knowing, thinking, memorizing, and solving of problems, are required to be analyzed.
Knowledge could be considered as a scheme or a mental construction that is symbolic. Learning
has been defined to be the alteration in the schemata of the learner (Schumacher, Englander &
Carraccio, 2013).
In response to the movement of behaviorism, the theorist of cognitivism said that, the
individuals are not like animals that are programmed, which simply respond to the environmental
stimuli; rather the individuals are rational beings who call for dynamic participation for the
purpose of learning, and the individuals act in accordance and consequence to their thinking.

8INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
The behavior changes are observed, merely as a hint of what has been occurring in the
mind of the learner. A metaphor has been used by the Cognitive theorist, referring to the mind
being compared to a computer: implying that the information comes, then it is processed, thereby
leading to certain outcomes.
The growth of psychological structure as well as obtaining knowledge has primarily been
stressed by the Cognitive theory. Cognitive theory intends to deal with the formation of the idea
regarding the learning process of the student; like how the information have been received; how
it has been organized and processed into existing scheme; the process of retrieving the
information when recalled.
In short, cognitive theory tends to clarify the method of acquisition of knowledge and the
succeeding effects on the psychological structure of mind. Learning has not been about the
technicalities done by a learner. Instead it is a process that depends on the knowledge which the
learner already has, that is, the information which had already been existing and their technique
of gathering fresh knowledge, that is, the process by which they put together the fresh
information into the schemas that were already existing.
Acquisition of knowledge has been an activity that consists of inner codification of
psychological structures in the mind of the student. In accordance with the theory, the students
must take part actively in their own process of learning (Anderson, Spiro & Montague, 2017).
Cognitive approaches essentially focuses on the psychological activity of the learner, such as,
setting of goals, mental planning, as well as organizational strategy.
Not only the instructional components and the environmental factors play a significant
role in case of learning, in the cognitive theory. There have been further key essentials like

9INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
transformation, learning to code, rehearsing, storing and retrieval of information. The beliefs,
thoughts, attitude values of the learner are included in the process of learning (Ausubel, 2012).
There have been certain criticism with regard to the cognitive approach of learning. The
primary shortcoming of this approach has been due to the references given to the cognitive
processes, which cannot be observed directly. It has been relied profoundly on the inferences.
Thus, much of scientific foundation may not be found in the cognitive approach, on the
ground that, it is based on or influenced by what has been taken from the findings. The cognitive
approach has both advantages as well as disadvantages. The focus on the practical and useful
applications has proved to be an advantage, but unable to observe the hypothetical causes of
behavior has proved to be a disadvantage (Spielberger, 2013).
Constructivism
A response to the educational approaches like programmed instruction and behaviorism,
constructivism has stated learning to be a dynamic, contextualized method of construction of
knowledge instead of merely acquiring it.
Knowledge has been constructed depending upon individual experiences and hypothesis
of the surroundings. The Learner constantly tests the hypothesis by the way of social negotiation.
Each individual has a dissimilar construction and interpretation of the process of knowledge. The
learner has not been considered as a blank slate; instead, it brings earlier experiences of the past
as well as cultural factors to a particular situation (Fosnot, 2013).

10INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
A frequent confusion regarding the theory of constructivism says that the instructors are
not supposed to tell something directly to the students. Rather the student should always be
allowed to build up knowledge for himself.
This approach has been a perplexing theory of pedagogy involving the practice and
method of teaching, with a theory of knowledge. It has been assumed that the entire knowledge
is constructed, from the earlier knowledge of the learner, irrespective of the method by which an
individual has been taught. Therefore, in the case of being a listener to a particular lecture, the
individual involves in dynamic attempts of constructing new knowledge (Duchesne et al., 2013).
The Social Development Theory of Vygotsky has been considered as one of the
fundamentals for Constructivism. The learning theory of Constructivism is a philosophy that
enhances the conceptual and logical growth of the students. The principal concept in the learning
theory of constructivism is the role played in the education of the student, in relation to the
experiences and connection to the adjoining environment (Gopnik & Wellman, 2012).
It has been argued by the learning theory of constructivism that the knowledge are
produced by the people and the formation of the meanings have been based on the personal
experiences (Jonassen & Land, 2012). Two important concepts of the learning theory of
constructivism that form the construction of new knowledge within the individual are
assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation causes the individual to assimilate the fresh experiences into older
experiences. This helps in the development of new outlooks, in the individuals as well as it helps
the individuals to rethink about the earlier misunderstandings. As a result, it helps in the

11INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
evaluation of the important stuffs, which in turn leads to alteration of their perceptions (Seel,
2012).
In contrast, Accommodation is restructuring the world as well as the experiences that are
new into the psychological capacity which have already been present. Individuals visualize a
particular manner by which the world functions. In case the matters do not operate with regard to
that context, accommodations are to be done and the expectations are to be reframed with the
results or outcomes (Dragojevic, Gasiorek & Giles, 2015).
A shortcoming in the Constructivism Theory has been the requirement or need of a
structure. Few students need an environment that is highly structured in order to do well.
Constructivism requires the teacher to remove the standardized curriculum and have a
personalized study course that is based upon the earlier or past knowledge of the student. This
might result the some of the students to lag behind the others (Earl, 2012).
Another shortcoming is that, it might lead the students to be perplexed and discouraged
as the students might be incapable to form relationships or associations as well as abstracts
between the things they already know and the information that have been learnt for themselves.
All of the above theories has its own significance, and are vital to understand (Edgar,
2012). At the time of deciding what strategies are to be used, the following points are to be
considered: the intensity of knowledge possessed by the learner; the demands of thought
processing, and the outcome which is desired (Ertmer & Newby, 2013).

12INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
Student Behavior
Positive behaviors of the students have most efficiently supported and developed by the
relationship that is based on whole school as well as activities of the classroom, and behavioral
expectations that has been communicated in a clear manner.
Many of the students show evidence of behavior, which is said to be challenging. They have a
need of intervention and call for additional support for addressing the behavior and for the
purpose of developing positive behaviors.
The schools or institutions have the capability to characterize their own category of
behavioral expectations. No common grouping or category of behavior exists, which can be
accepted universally to be challenging.
Some examples of challenging behavior: Disruptive behaviors like, showing tantrums,
screaming, refusal to follow class instructions, et cetera. Withdrawn behaviors like, being shy,
being anxious, phobia of school, truant behavior, social isolation, et cetera. Violent
behaviors like, head banging, biting, kicking, punching, quarrelling or fighting, and others.
Inappropriate behavior in the social context like, improper conversations, act of stealing,
showing extremely affectionate towards others, improper touching and others.
Issues related to classroom organization, like unpredictable routines, insufficient
materials or not being aware of cultural differences, might to challenging behavior of students.
Critical analysis
There are different types of students in a classroom, some are among the toppers, some
students tend to be lost, not knowing what to do. There are mediocre students as well and there

13INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
are least interested to study. The different students exhibit different kinds of behavior, which
depends on their personality.
In the first instance, it has been proved by research that previous knowledge influence the
abstract growth and conceptual modification in the students. With the conceptual growth, the
individuals or students include or make an addition to their knowledge that is existing, as well as
with the conceptual change, students have an opportunity of correcting misconception or error in
knowledge that is existing. Facilitation of change or conceptual growth needs first obtainment of
a basic level of knowledge of the student, preceding the start of every unit by formative
assessment.
One way of assessment of knowledge that has been existing, involves beginning the unit
with a small list of six to ten statements that has to be marked true/false and consequently
requiring to have a class discussion regarding the results. The outcome of the said discussion can
help in guiding the choice of activities and assignments, which will be suitable for facilitating the
conceptual growth or change. Earlier knowledge can be helpful to the students for the
incorporation of background knowledge as well as portray connections between the units
throughout the course. This theory is applicable in case of the second situation as well.
In the third instance, Acquiring of knowledge as well as skill that is long term, is largely
reliant on practice. This theory illustrates with the help of experimentation and strategies that
helps the students in a more effective manner to learn the materials for long-term memorizing.
Further, examples of this theory can help to provide information regarding instruction during the
course. By the issuance of frequent formative assessments by activities, sample tests, practice
problems; the instructors or teachers can help the students to increase their skills, confidence and

14INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
knowledge. In addition, the instructors who conduct practice activities or tasks at regular spaced
interval, can help the students to achieve better increases in the ability of long-term retrieval.
Practice tests are to be inclusive of open-ended questions, which are required for retrieval of
prior knowledge as well as the challenge of application of information to new contexts or
situations. This theory can be applicable to the third instance as the students would be able to
practice throughout the session.
Conclusion
Learning is the method of acquisition or gathering of skills or knowledge, which can be
through various means, like through the process of studying, by personal experiences or being
taught, et cetera. The conceptual framework to describe, how the knowledge is processed,
retained and absorbed during the course of learning is known as Learning Theories. The
Learning Theories are: Behaviorism, which says about the behavior changes and the new
behavioral patterns, which are acquired through connection between responses and stimuli.
Cognitivism, which says that processing of information leads to retention and understanding.
Constructivism views that the knowledge of the world is constructed by a person based on one’s
own individual experiences. It can be said that, every theory has its own significance, and is vital
to understand. At the time of deciding what strategies are to be used, the following points are to
be considered: the intensity of knowledge possessed by the learner; the demands of thought
processing, and the outcome which is desired.

15INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
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