Network Addressing and Routing Protocols: A Comprehensive Overview

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Assignment 2
Solution 1
The most important difference between them is that classful addressing isn’t as efficient as
classless addressing in allocating the IP address. Every device has its unique IP address so that
they are uniquely identified when taking in reference of network. This IP address also helps in
communicating to other devices over a particular network. There are 32 bits present in a
particular IP address, an octet is formed by combining 8 bits which are separated using a dot.
Classful addressing is less useful & practical than classless addressing. In classless addressing
there aren’t any limitations on host ID & network ID whereas in classless addressing there are
changes made according to classes (Dhanapal,2018).
Solution 2
In Class A most of the addresses are wasted because of large capacity of addresses available in
class A. In class A almost 17 million addresses can be generated and used which is way more
larger than the normal usage of an organization. 24 bits are assigned as address bit and 8 bits are
assigned for network devices. Whereas in class C only 8 bits are assigned for subnet mask and
which can generate 64 IP addresses including broadcast and network IP. But class C will not be
sufficient for bigger organization which has more than 60 networks running in their organization.
Solution 3

In IP4 addressing all IP addresses were divided into two portions. First portion will identify the
network and other part identifies the host machine in a network. Subnet masking or mask will
define as dividing the addresses within a network. By dividing this addresses into various
subnets will allow to connect the internet in a single network which is being shared in an
organization. If system is available in a network other system can be searched using a local link
in the network. In IPv4 mask is being considered of 32 bits and have 8 bit octets. For connecting
an address with other network, this technique will be called as Classless Inter-Domain Routing
(Carter-Schwendler,2016).
Solution 4
In any block first address is known as network address. This can be used for identification of
block in a network and it will not be assigned with any host in a network. Use of network address
will be seen in routing of packets which can be done within a network. For sending a packet
from a network X to network Y, this can be done with the help of an IP address and a switch
which is being displayed in an image (Uppal,2018).
Network Address can be found using masking of Network, It can be found by ANDing the
Network mask and IP address of a given network.
Address of Network = Network Mask AND IP Address.
Solution 5
Sub netting can be defined as diving the various contiguous groups of networks which are
divided into smaller groups and is being assigned to a network with similar configuration called
as subnet mask. A Subnet mask will have more 1s in consecutive form. In subnet mask network
part of the system will be hidden and only host part will be left for identification of machine in a
network. In Subnet mask, identification of network parts and host parts can be done. A given
network can be divided into two or more subnet which means it will be masked for than two
networks. For class A subnet mask is being defined for 255.0.0.0 and for class B 255.255.0.0.
And class C will have various network is being signified (Vardy, A., 2016.).
Solution 6
For accessing internet in a network, IP address is needed to remotely access the internet within a
network, from a group of Private IP address, translation of IP address will be required and
necessary. NAT which is an acronym for Network Address Translation is defined as a process in
which IP of local network is being translated into global IP which will be used for connecting the

network with Internet. To acquire internet, port number translation is being done, which means
that masking of port number with another host will be done.
Solution 7
In this virtual connection is being established first before the transmission of packets in a
networks. Without the establishment of any virtual connection, the packet is being transmitted
over a network.
Destination code authentication is being required before sending the data packet over a virtual
connection. For transferring of data message there will no need of an authentication code.
For ensuring the connection establishment between receiver and sender, handshake protocol is
being followed. Handshaking Protocol is not followed in connectionless protocol in their
network.
Solution 8
In network layer fragmentation is being performed, when datagram packet has more size then the
message then it will be divided into various fragments in the transport layer to maintain the
efficiency of packet transfer.
IP header has an allocation of 16 bits, so the length of datagram which can be maximum is 216 -
1 i.e. ~65k bytes.
Network layer has the responsibility of fragmentation at the destination side of the message and
it can be performed at routers.
At source side, performing fragmentation will not be a good option because of segmentation
performed in the transport layer. At the transport layer, it will look for frame data limit and
datagram data limit and perform segmentation in such a way that there will not be any
requirement of fragmentation in network layer (Sadot,2015).
Solution 9
Due to depletion of addresses in IPv4, there would be an implementation of Ipv6 protocol by
some organization. But using IPv6 is not that much feasible so there would be a transition from
IPv4 to IPv6.
There are some transitions which are available for transition of addresses and data from IPv4 to
IPv6. Some transition techniques which are available are:

• Dual Stack
• Tunneling
• Translation
Main difference between Dual Stack and Tunneling is the approach of implementation. Dual
Stack are easiest approach while transition of data from IPv4 to IPv6, it is more feasible by an
organization to implement this transition within their organization. Whereas, in case of tunneling
some prerequisite knowledge of networking and expertise knowledge is required for the process
of transition of data. In tunneling given packet is being encapsulated into wrapper and then
transport from a source to destination and after that it will be de-capsulated and retransmitted.
Solution 10
Some Address mapping protocols are:
• ARP
• RARP
ARP is an acronym for Address Resolution Protocol which can be used for finding the physical
address of the associated network layer by the help of network address. ARP is being used in
mapping data link layer with the network layer . For sending the information to a destination
server, IP, as well as physical address, is being required to send the message. ARP is used for
finding the physical address of a machine. Whereas, RARP is being used for finding the IP
address of the machine.
Solution 11
ICMP stands for internet control message protocol which is used for reporting the error in the
network, for example routers show error message when IP packets aren’t delivered to network.
IP devices have the power to receive process or send ICMP message. This is not end-user
product means this is accessed by admin to troubleshoot network connections.
Solution 12
Autonomous systems supervise and manage the network for organization or single entity. These
are heterogeneous network which are managed by enterprise. High sizes of enterprise have vast
network infrastructures including small networks. BGD connects various autonomous systems
by addressing the packets used in routing. Numbers lying between 64512-65535 are reserved

series for private purpose (Koley, 2017).
Solution 13
RIP is known as the Routing Information Protocol. It is dynamic and Hop count is used by RIP
for routing metric. RIP find's the most effective and smallest path for data transmission from
node to node. The hop count algorithm is used to find the smallest path from end-to-end. This
increases the transmission speed of the data to be delivered in the most effective time. The
information about the length of the hop is stored in the routing table after the determination. It is
used in local as well as wide area networks as it is easily implemented and easily configurable.
Solution 14
Routing Information Protocol messages are the messages that are distributed over a network that
uses RIP. The RIP messages depend upon the periodic updates that happen in every 30 seconds
to carry any information from one router to the next. It uses port 520 and the User Datagram
Protocol. It is used by the router to carry routing information. The RIP messages are exchanged
between the routers. All these are encapsulated in the UDP segment. There are two types of RIP
messages:
1. Request Message: These messages ask the neighboring router for its routing table to be sent.
2. Response Message: This message fetches the routing table of the router.
Solution 15
OSPF uses the link-state protocol whilst RIP uses hop count protocol. Therefore, OSPF works
more effectively and smartly when avoiding loops whereas RIP does not. RIP is better for small
networks whereas OSPF is better for both small and big networks. The OSPF selects the better
bath than RIP for transmission of messages over a network as it uses per interface meter, not per
hop count. The OSPF messages propagate immediately as OSPF floods the network with news if
anything happens in its neighborhood. On the other hand, the RIP distributed slowly as it relies
on the periodic updates which happen on every 30 seconds (Abdallah, 2017).
Solution 16
BGP is known as the Border Gateway Protocol. It is one of the routing protocols. BGP is used
for transferring the data or information between autonomous systems over the internet. It is
basically a path vector protocol which regulates the routing decisions. BGP is responsible to
communicate with the entire autonomous network and maintain its routing tables with respect to

the topologies of all the externally connected systems. BGP is referred to as both Internal as
External BGP when communicating between different systems or at host respectively.
Solution 17
Distance vector sends the whole table of routing whereas the Link state transfer only the link
state data. Slow convergence is found in distance vector whereas fast convergence is found in
link state. The Distance vector has upates sometimes in broadcasting whereas in multicasting is
used in link state for the routing updates. Distance vector knows the entire network topology,
unlike vector for distance which isn't known as network topology. It is simpler to configure in
distance vector whereas it is harder to config in the Link state. Examples for distance vector are
IGRP, RIP and for link state are IS-IS, OSPF (Michael, 2016).
References
Dhanapal, A. and Vijayakumar, V., 2018. AN INTRODUCTION TO IPV4 ADDRESSING
SCHEMES, MODES, AND CLASSIFICATIONS. International Journal of Mathematics, Game
Theory, and Algebra, 27(1), pp.67-79.
Carter-Schwendler, C. and Sangubhatla, M., Microsoft Technology Licensing LLC,
2016. IPv4/IPv6 bridge. U.S. Patent 9,392,080.
Uppal, H.S., Vasquez, J., Howard, C.W. and Radlein, A.S., Amazon Technologies Inc,
2018. Encrypted network addresses. U.S. Patent Application 15/389,314.
Vardy, A., 2016. Subnetting For Beginners: How To Easily Master IP Subnetting And Binary
Math To Pass Your CCNA-CCNA, Networking, IT Security, ITSM. CreateSpace Independent
Publishing Platform.
Sadot, E. and Zilbershtein, I.E., Avaya Communications Israel Ltd, 2015. Packet fragmentation
prevention. U.S. Patent 9,088,494.
Koley, B., Padgett, S., Jain, A., Singh, A., Vahdat, A., Kallahalla, M. and Tariq, M., Google LLC,
2017. System and method for software defined routing of traffic within and between autonomous
systems with enhanced flow routing, scalability and security. U.S. Patent 9,807,004.
Abdallah, S., Kayssi, A., Elhajj, I.H. and Chehab, A., 2018, April. Network convergence in SDN

versus OSPF networks. In 2018 Fifth International Conference on Software Defined Systems
(SDS) (pp. 130-137). IEEE.
Michael, N. and Tang, A., Cornell University, 2016. System and methods for improved network
routing. U.S. Patent 9,521,067.