IT Networking and Communication Assignment: Addressing and Protocols

This assignment comprehensively covers key concepts in IT networking and communication. It begins with an explanation of IPv4 addressing, classful and classless addressing, and the shift towards classless addressing to mitigate address depletion. The assignment then delves into subnetting, network masks, and network address translation (NAT), crucial for efficient network management. It further differentiates between connection-oriented and connectionless services, detailing IP fragmentation and transition strategies from IPv4 to IPv6, including dual stack and tunneling methods. The role of ARP and ICMP are discussed. The assignment explores autonomous systems, routing protocols such as RIP, OSPF, and BGP, comparing distance vector and link state routing algorithms. Finally, it concludes with an overview of the OSI and TCP/IP models, encapsulation, and the responsibilities of the data link, network, and transport layers. The document offers a clear understanding of the core principles of modern computer networks.

Running head: IT NETWORKING AND COMMUNICATION
IT NETWORKING AND COMMUNICATION
Name of the Student
Name of the University
Author Note

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Discussions
1. IPv4 addressing utilises the idea of classes. This structural design in Ipv4 is known as
classful addressing. The classes are divided into 5 classes in the classful addressing in
which the space of address in A,B,C,D and E. All the classes takes some fraction of the
gap of address. In the classful addressing, the IP address is split into host ID and network
ID.
The classful addressing leads to depletion of address. It is a very big problem for this and
it is not used these days due to these reasons. In order to overcome the issue of depletion and
to provide the organizations more admission to the Internet. The classless addressing are used
in which there are no classes however, the addresses are arranged in blocks. It allows the use
of subnet mask that are of variable length and various subnet mask are used in the similar
network.
2. A block in the address of class A is very large for most of the companies. This means that
most of the addresses in class A are exhausted and they are not used. A class A subnet has
total of 24 bits importance of addressing and that is sufficient for almost 17 million entity
devices. Most of the units have only a small portion of this amount of devices. Therefore,
most of the addresses are not utilised.
The class C have only 8 bits for the host address thus, restricting the number of devices to
256. Therefore, many organizations do not use class C addressing due to this reason.
3. A mask is a 32-bit binary number that provides the address of the network in the block of
address when the AND operation is applied bitwise on the mask and any IP address of the
block. The mask that is default in various classes is Class A- 255.0.0.0, Class B-
255.255.0.0.

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A subnet mask hides the network part of the Internet Protocol address of the computer
system and then leaves only the host part as the identifier of the machine. It utilises the
similar format as an IPv4 address.
4. An address of network is an identifier for a host or a node on a network of
telecommunications. The address of network is designed to be distinctive identifiers
across the network. Some of the networks permit private or local addresses or addresses
that are locally administered that may not be distinct.
Given an IP address 132.6.7.85 and the default Class B mask. The address of network can
be found out from the IP address. The default mask is 255.255.0.0 that means only the first 2
bytes are conserved and the other two bytes that are present are put to 0. Therefore, the
address of the network is 132.6.0.0.
5. Subnetting is a strategy that is utilised in order to panel a physical network that is single
into one or more than one sub-networks that are logical and that are smaller. An IP
address consists of a segment of network and a host segment.
A subnet mask is a number that refers to a range of addresses of IP that can be utilised in
a network. A subnet mask masks, the network part of an IP address of a system and then
leaves only the host part as the identifier of the machine. A common subnet mask for IP
address of Class C is 255.255.255.0.
Most of the networks that are used at home use the default mask of 255.255.255.0. Large
networks with many machines can use subnet masks of 255.255.0.0. This is the subnet mask
that is default and it utilised by networks of class B it gives up to IP addresses of 65,536.
6. The Network Address Translation is the procedure in which a device of network that is
commonly a firewall, assigns an address that is public to a system of computer and that is

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inside a network that is private. NAT is used to restrict the number of addresses of IP that
are public, a company must use for the security and the economic purposes.
The translation of network address is a method in order to remap one space of address of
IP into another by changing the information of address of network in the packets of IP
address while they are is transfer across the device of routing and that is normally the edge
router.
7. The comparison between connection less service and connection oriented services are as
follows:
 Authentication is required in the connection-oriented services while authentication is not
needed in the connection less services.
 The connection-oriented services are much more reliable than the connectionless services.
 The interface of the connection-oriented service is associated on stream while connection
less services is based on messages.
8. IP fragmentation is a procedure of Internet protocol that split the packets into minor bits,
so that the resultant bits can bypass via a link with a greatest transmission unit that is
smaller than the new size of the packet. The host that is receiving reassembles the bits.
Fragmentation is required because size of Maximum Transmission Unit varies from
router to router. Considering that, the user wants to send 1500 bytes of data and assume for
sending data to the user that is intended that the ISP required to route through 2 various
routes.
9. There are couple of methods or transition strategies that can be utilised to switch a
network from IPv4 to IPv6. The strategies include:
 Tunneling- transporting traffic of IPv6 via IPv4 network transparently
 Dual Stack: Running both IPv6 and IPv4 on similar devices

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The difference between dual stack and tunneling are as follows:
The dual stack provides path for all the hosts in order to correspond with server without
altering the address of IP. Tunneling is utilised as a medium in order to be in touch the
network that is transit with various versions of IP.
10. ARP has been deployed with much such combination of technologies of data link layer
and network such as IPv4, Chaosnet, DECnet and XEROX PARC Universal Packet
utilising the IEEE 802 standards, FDDI, X.25, Frame Relay and Asynchronous Transfer
Mode.
11. The ICMP develops and sends message to the IP address that is at the source indicating
that a gateway to the internet that a router, host or service cannot be reached for the
deliverance of packets. Any device of network of IP has the capability to receive process
or send ICMP messages. ICMP is not protocol of transport that sends data between
various computer systems.
12. A network that is administered by a single sequence of rules of management that are
controlled by one group, company or individual. The autonomous systems utilise one
protocol of routing but more than one protocol can be used. The internet core is made up
of several autonomous systems.
13. The full form of RIP is Routing Information Protocol. The RIP is a protocol which are
utilised by the routers in order to switch the knowledge of routing on a network. The
functions of the protocol are to decide the well-organized way in order to route the
network on a network and stop the loop of routing.
14. A RIP message is utilised by a router in order to demand and then obtain the information
of routing about an autonomous system or to share the information periodically with the
neighbours. The RIP is protocol of distance vector routing by using the packets of UDP in
order to exchange the information through port 520.

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15. The OSPF messages are propagated right away because a router that used OSPF will
flood the network right away with the news of any changes to the neighbourhood. It is not
that messages proliferate faster but it is the RIP algorithm that does not converge as fast
as the algorithm of OSPF. The algorithms that are following the OSPF and protocols of
routing work differently.
16. The Border Gateway Protocol is a protocol, which tracks the way packets are, routed
transversely the internet through the switch over of information and routing between the
routers that are edge. Packets are directly between the systems that are autonomous by the
BGP, networks that are tracked by a company that is single or the service providers.
17. The difference between distance vector routing and link state routing are as follows:
Distance Vector routing
 It is an algorithm of dynamic routing in which all of the routers measures the distances
between each destination and itself that are possible
 The routers share the information concerning entire network to the neighbours and
therefore update the table that are associated to the neighbours
 The contribution of knowledge with its neighbours take place at the regular intervals
 It uses Bellman Ford algorithm in order to make the tables of routing.
Link state Routing
 It is an algorithm of dynamic routing in which all of the router shares information of
neighbours with the various routers that are present
 A router sends it knowledge regarding the neighbours to each of its routers via flooding
 The information sharing takes place if there is a modification
 It utilises Dijkastra’s Algorithm in order to make the tables of routing.

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18. The seven layers of the OSI model include the physical layer, the data link layer, the
network layer, the transport layer, the session layer, the presentation layer and the
application layer.
The five layers of the protocol suite of TCP/IP include application layer, transport layer,
network layer, data link layer and the physical layer.
19. The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined to have four layers that is host-to-
network, transport, internet and application. However, when the TCP/IP model is
compared to the OSI model, it can be said that host-to-network layer is equal to the
amalgamation of the data link and the physical layers.
20. The data link, physical and the network layers are the network support layers and the
presentation, session and the application layers are the user support layers.
21. In networking, encapsulation of data is a procedure of captivating data from a protocol
that is single and then changing them into one more protocol, so the data can carry on
across the network. For example, a packet of TCP/IP that is limited in a frame of ATM is
a type of encapsulation.
22. The data link layer is responsible for organizing the logical link, control of media access,
addressing of hardware, detection of error, defining, and handling standards of physical
layer. It provides reliable transfer of data by transmitting the packets with synchronization
that is required, control of error and flow of control.
23. The network layer lies below the transport layer in the stack of protocol. A transport layer
protocol gives communication that is logical between the procedures that are executing on
various hosts; a protocol of network layer gives communication that is logical between
the hosts. The distinction is very small by it is essential.
24. An additional mechanism is required at the transport layer because issues between the
nodes can be noticed by the control of the data link layer however, the data link layer

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cannot notice the issues that are at the nodes. It is also required because the routers that
are between the links are not perfect and the users are not protecting against the flips of
bits in them. If integrity of data is cared about then TLS must be used so there is
checksum of cryptography in the path.
25. The responsibility of the network layer is to do routing, that is moving the packets (that
are the fundamental entities of transport of data on the networks of computer that are
modern) across the network utilising the most suitable paths. It also addresses the
messages and then translates the addresses that are logical in to the addresses that are
physical. The services of the network layer are to permit end devices in order to switch
data that are across the network. In order to achieve the end-to-end transport, the network
layer utilises four procedures that are basic.
26. The transport layer is the layer in the OSI model is accountable for a contact that is end to
end over a network. It gives a communication that is logical between the procedures of
application executing on various hosts within an architecture that is layered of the
protocols and various components of network. The layer of OSI is responsible in order to
establish a communication session that is temporary between two various applications
and making sure that the data that is transmitted can be reassembled in proper set and
meeting the reliability needs of the applications.
27. The comparison between logical address, physical address and port address are as
follows:
 Logical address: An address of IP of a scheme is known as logical address. This address
is amalgamation of host ID and the Net ID. This address is utilised via the network layer
in order to recognise a specific network in the middle of the various networks. This
network address can be easily transformed by altering the position of host that are present
on the network.

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 Physical address: the system that have a NIC via which two computer systems can be
connected physically with every other with the help of cables. The address of NIC is
called MAC address.
 Port address: Many applications that are running on the computer. Each of the
applications execute with a port number on the system. This number of port for the
applications is determined by the kernel of operating system.
28. The services that are provided by the application layer include file transfer, remote
access, database management that is shared and the services of mail.
29. It is about the requirement and the cost that are accompanied with it. The users do not
need it because there is not much to be done in the presentation and the session. However,
with the arrival of audio/video traffic and the requirement of transferring data over the
network that has high latency. The presentation and the session layer use might pop up.
The devices of network decide to process the session and the presentation layer in order
to aid the transfer of data of multi format file in various ways or maintain sessions that are
intermediate.

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