Leadership and Management Report: USAID Agency Case Study Analysis

This report provides a comprehensive analysis of leadership and management practices within USAID, a US government agency responsible for foreign aid. It begins with an introduction to USAID, its mission, and organizational structure, followed by an exploration of the evolution of leadership and management theories. The core of the report critically evaluates the application of the classical approach and transformational leadership within USAID. The report examines the relevance of these theories to the agency's operations, considering factors like efficiency, organizational structure, and the agency's governmental context. It also highlights how USAID's structure and objectives align with the principles of the classical approach, emphasizing the importance of coordination, standardization, and adherence to government regulations. The report concludes by advocating for a comprehensive understanding of leadership and management theories to ensure effective operations and the successful fulfillment of USAID's mission of providing civilian foreign aid and promoting socioeconomic development.

Developing Leadership
and Management

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1
Background to case study organisation..................................................................................1
Evolution and shaping of leadership and management theories............................................1
Critical evaluation and application of leadership and management approaches/theories......3
REFERENCES................................................................................................................................9

INTRODUCTION
A company consists of a large number of persons who work together in coordination and
cooperation in order to accomplish a specific objective. The foundation of organisational
structure is based on culture, values, norms and beliefs prevailing within the premises of
company. This can be exhibited only with the help of enigmatic as well as intellectual
management and leadership. This provides assistance to company in ensuring that that the
conduct of individuals and teams operating within the enterprise is in accordance with the
common goal of company. A healthy and optimistic working atmosphere can be facilitated only
with the aid of dedicated leaders and self-directed managers who intend to take the enterprise to
new heights by motivating the workforce in an appropriate manner. The present management
report is conducted upon the leadership and management analysis of USAID which is an
independent agency of US federal government that is involved in administration of development
assistance and civilian foreign aid. The following report contains critical evaluation of relevant
leadership theories along with design, execution and evaluation of appropriate leadership
development interventions.
Background to case study organisation
USAID has been selected as the organisation for this assignment. USAID stands for
United States Agency for International Development which is one of the biggest official
financial aid agencies across the globe, having an overall budget of approximately $27 billion.
This governmental agency accounts for over 50% of the United States foreign aid. This entity
has been prevailing since the year 1961, when this was developed under Foreign Assistance Act.
This is found to be an official inclusion of US foreign policy whereby the organisation
functions in accordance with the supervision of Secretary of State, President and National
Security Council. The respective agency has missions within almost 100 nations, especially in
Asia, Africa, Latin America, Eastern Europe and the Middle East. By the year 2016, the total
employees in USAID were 10,235 inclusive of 3,059 within Washington DC headquarters as
well as 7,176 within the field missions.
Evolution and shaping of leadership and management theories
The behavioural and operational conduct of workforce is constantly being studied by
researchers for a considerable period of time. The investigation as well as understanding of this
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conduct resulted in a field of study named managerial thought. Large scale production systems
within America during 1800 empowered companies to transform a large quantum of raw
materials into finished goods at a much low cost than past times. Improvement taken place
within sequential construction system innovation lead to the development of a broad assortment
of material merchandise. Such mechanical headways happened at such a rapid speed that a
certain extent of disorderly conduct took place. Majority proportion of industrial framework
during the ancient period viewed it as national productivity issue. Industrial companies were thus
found not to be as proficient as they should have been. Three problems lead to this. The first and
foremost was the issue of joint effort amongst personnel as well as machines. A number of
assembly line operators displayed concern over the possibility that substitution of machine
control with human handling would lead to disposal of several occupations. Workforce was
excessively physically apprehensive of big and loud risky production plant machinery. Second
reason was general lack of ability to run and operate significantly sized production plants
together with the companies that could lay out a large quantum of articles in order to ensure
reduction in per unit costs. As the proprietors as well as workers was not experienced in carrying
out work within the large setting, diverse set of expert structures were needed. In this relation,
standard types of working techniques were required to be designed as well as formulated.
Whatever efficiencies such strategies realized were balanced to a great magnitude by a general
profound personalization within the working atmosphere. Bigger business entities as well as
industrial corporations were simply found to possess much more drastic issues. As more and
more managers started to recognise the extent and magnitude of such problems, the more
scanning was done to develop solution for countering this. The scanning for solution gave rise to
the development of four effective and efficient ways for tackling the managerial decisions. These
are, namely, the classical approach (1800), the behavioural approach (1900), the systems
approach (1930-40) and lastly the contingency approach (1960).
Just as managerial approaches have their evolution owing to certain situations and
conditions, leadership approaches also have a prolonged history of evolution and development.
Both, approaches associated with leadership as well as management came into existence in order
to provide guidance and supervision to enigmatic leaders and managers in any company to
significantly deal with complex situations arising in the business environment of entity. In this
relation, the diverse set of approaches of management and leadership are taken into account by
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the companies and the most relevant ones identified by the entity are taken into use by them.
This is done in order to facilitate orderly business conduct and to ensure that the behavioural
conduct and performance of employees working within the corporation is aligned with the long
term goal stipulated by enterprise. Thus, the relevance and critical evaluation of such approaches
have gained significance for companies.
Critical evaluation and application of leadership and management approaches/theories
USAID is a governmental agency involved in the provision of foreign aid and thus
requires the usage of a number of leadership and management approaches in order to effectively
ensure the conduction of business operations in the desirable manner. Thus, following is an
account of the approaches of leadership as well as management as considered relevant by this
entity along with the critical application of the specific approach in organisational premises:-
Classical approach of management
The fundamental ideology proposed by this theory of management is that efficiency
within the premises of an entity can only be attained with enhanced level of productivity. Thus,
the requirement here is to make sure that the alignment of managers is with the ascertainment of
best way to carry out activities and tasks of business. For this, the primary importance is of
determination of structure as well as purpose of entity. Then the next stage is to stress upon work
planning, ascertainment of prerequisite in terms of technical needs, assumptions of logical and
rational behavioural conduct and principles of management. As per the theory, gaining a holistic
knowledge of the purpose of entity is of vital importance as it aids in appreciation of the several
types of work units as well as methods for enhancement of workplace efficiencies. For getting
knowledge about the purpose of the entity, the best manner is to illustrate the organisational
objectives as this tends to promote clarity of purposes and duties spread across all levels of
enterprise and ultimately results in the development of an optimal structure. Due consideration in
this context is given to collaboration, specialisation and division of work across the
organisational lines. Emphasis is upon the chain of command used by administration as well as
formal authoritative connectivity.
Critique: The organisations, scientists, academicians and professionals who possess
likelihood towards the adoption of this theory strive to forget the biggest criticism faced by
classical approach. It is critiqued for ignoring the vital components of an entity such as human
resources. The idea of stipulation of standards here to gain a control over managerial activities is
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usually disapproved by many authors. The application of this theory within an enterprise results
in development of an organisational structure whereby personnel rarely exercise control over the
workstation. It is usually seen that an ideal approach of management is that which takes into
account the complex systems that aid in stimulation of accomplishment of organisational goal.
Thus, the belief possessed by this theory that strategy can be devised by making use of standards
of classicalist managerial hypothesis. However, the theorists who have devised this theory have
received appreciation for development of a methodological view of management that stipulates
certain standards which pertain to all entities. This approach is ascertained to be a composite of
Scientific, Bureaucratic and Administrative Management as well.
Relevance for entity: This approach is relevant to be applied by the management of
USAID as it is a governmental agency and acting under the stipulated standards of government
and this theory will prove to be beneficial for the agency. Further, it is noticed that the critics of
this theory say that it ignores the human element of organisation and just focus on efficiency by
way of work planning. This critic does not hold significance for USAID as here the main focus is
not upon gaining a position and market share ahead of rivals like usually companies, it is a
governmental agency that provides financial aid and thus the main focus of the agency should be
upon that purpose of entity only. Further, the criticism of development of a rigid organisational
structure as a result of this adoption of this management approach also does not affect USAID as
it is a governmental agency whose structure is devised by the US Government. Thus, it can be
said that classical approach of management is relevant to be adopted and applied by USAID
within the premises to ensure high work efficiency and thus, the timely provision of civilian
foreign aid.
Application within entity: USAID is an organisation whose main objective is to deal with
poverty, disaster, global environment issues and foster socioeconomic development of United
States. In this regard, the purpose of the organisation as stipulated by the theory is closely related
to the objective of entity. The purpose of USAID is the provision of civilian foreign aid as well
as development assistance to people and entities facing a number of issues already mentioned
above. Further, the organisational structure of this agency is stipulated by US Government.
Across the confines of global territory, a deputy administrator as well as an administrator, owing
their appointment to President and confirmation to Senate are found to be heading the respective
US agency (HOME » WHO WE ARE » ORGANIZATION, 2019). This agency is guided by
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Automated Directive System (ADS) at the operational level. ADS consists of organisation as
well as functions of the respective agency together with procedures and policies which provide
guidance to the programs of USAID. The structure of the entity comprises of more than 200
chapters that are structurally organised into 6 functional series, namely, Programming, Human
Resources, Budget & Finance, Management Services, Agency Organisation & Legal Affairs and
Acquisition & Assistance. The data is constantly updated with an aim to ensure alignment of
policies and procedures of the agency with Administrator policy statements, Federal regulations
and overarching guidance.
(Source: GLOBAL STRUCTURE OF USAID, 2019)
With the help of application of classical approach of management, USAID can ensure
maximisation of efficiency across all the units and departments within the organisational
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Illustration 1: GLOBAL STRUCTURE OF USAID

premise. Through this, the government can ensure provision of aid to needy people and entities
in least possible course of time. Thus, the implementation of classical theory of management
provides assistance to the entity in setting coordination among all the departments with the
stipulated standards and the rigid organisational structure laid down by US Government for
USAID. The organisation can ensure the effective dealing with issues such as poverty,
environment, socioeconomic etc. with the help of structure and standards, thereby, boosting the
economic and social state of United States in future course of time.
Transformational theory of leadership
In today’s modern era, development of high performance workforce has gained utmost
importance and to execute this, it is required by leaders to inspire and encourage the employees
working within the entity to deliver performance beyond the stipulated target or goal. As a result
of this need, the emergence of a new form of leadership took place named transformational
leadership. This is a type of leadership that is usually found to be prevailing at all the units and
levels of the entity, namely, teams, departments, divisions, and organisation as a whole. The
leaders who practice this type of leadership are ascertained to be visionary, risk-takers,
inspirational, daring and thoughtful thinkers and possess a charismatic appeal. However, it is
well regarded that charisma alone is not sufficient to change the manner in which a corporation
operates. To facilitate the introduction of such types of changes, transformational leaders are
required to exhibit four factors explained as follows:-
Inspirational Motivation: This is ascertained to be the core of transformational
leadership which is associated with the promotion of consistent vision, mission and set of values
to organisational members. The vision of transformational leaders is found to be so convincing
that they posses knowledge about what they want from each interface. Transformational leaders
provide guidance to their followers by way of provision of a working challenge. They work
passionately and positively to promote the force of collaboration and loyalty.
Intellectual Stimulation: Transformational leaders are found to support their
subordinates to be inventive and imaginative. They promote innovative ideas from their
followers and never condemn them in public for the mistake done by them. The leaders centre
upon the "what' in issues and do not stress upon the ‘blame’ part of it. They have no uncertainty
in abandonment of a conventional practice put by them if it is ascertained to be unproductive.
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Idealized Influence: They consider the belief that a leader can influence followers only
when he practice what he preach. The leaders act as idols for followers and gain the respect and
trust of their followers by way of their course of action. They place the requirements as well as
needs of their followers over their own, sacrificing their individual gains for them, and
demonstrating high pattern of moral behaviour. The exercise of authority by such leaders is
intended to influence followers to work for the common goal of entity.
Individualized Consideration: Transformational leader serve as mentor for their
followers and reward them for imagination and innovation. The followers are treated in a
different way as per their talent as well as knowledgebase. They are empowered to make
decisions and are always provided with the essential support to put into practice the undertaken
decisions.
Figure 1: Factors of Transformational leadership
Critique: Although transformational leadership is fruitful in introducing changes within
the organisation for better outcomes, it is often critiqued on a number of bases. The primary
critique of transformational theory is the difficulty that it involves while being trained or taught,
because its elements are so much comprehensive. Transformational theory is only for selected
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individuals that subjects it to abuse of authority and control. Transformational leadership has a
potential of being immorally and unethically used by unscrupulous leaders as was done by Adolf
Hitler, the leader of Germany. Yet another crucial argument against this theory is the unclarity of
its 4 elements or factors. Transformational leader can make use of power to make the followers
also carry out unethical or immoral course of activities and even commit crimes.
Relevance for entity: Although this leadership theory gains a lot of criticism by a number
of authors, academicians and classicalist theorists yet the significance of the transformational
leadership cannot be neglected. The environment is turbulent which is why it may be subject to
global discord. This calls for organisation to adopt transformational leadership at all the units and
all levels of entity. The followers of such leader exhibit huge extent of job satisfaction and
organisational loyal, thereby they get indulged within organisational citizenship behaviours.
With such kind of loyal and devoted workforce, it becomes relevant for the entity to take
initiative to transform entity in a positive manner by way of adoption and application of this
theory of leadership. Thus, this theory is relevant for USAID and helps it in bringing positive
changes that can assist this governmental agency to provide aid to a number of institutions and
people across the nation to promote socioeconomic development by way of eradication of some
major dominant issues like poverty.
Application within the entity: Transformational leadership can be feasibly applied by
USAID to take a control over the changes and bring it in a positive manner such that the
efficiency of provision of aid across the United States of America can be substantially enhanced.
With the implementation of this theory of leadership within the premises of USAID, the agency
can target more individuals and entities and provide them assistance to deal with issues such as
poverty, environmental, disaster, socioeconomic etc.
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REFERENCES
Books and Journals
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building: a protocol for a systematic review. BMJ open, 7(8), p.e017050.
Castro, K. and Ricci, G., 2015. Leadership in Fisheries Management Course Curriculum. The
USAID/Ghana Sustainable Fisheries Management Project (SFMP). Narragansett, RI:
Coastal Resources Center, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode
Island and URI Fisheries Center. GH2014_SCI004_CRC.
Dunning, C. and Leo, B., 2015. Making USAID Fit for Purpose—A Proposal for a Top-to-
Bottom Program Review. White House and the World 2016 Briefing Book.
Dunning, C., Rose, S. and McGillem, C., 2017. Implementing Ownership at USAID and MCC:
A US Agency-Level Perspective. Center for Global Development. Policy Paper, 99.
Gingerich, T.R. and Cohen, M.J., 2015. Turning the Humanitarian System on its Head: Saving
lives and livelihoods by strengthening local capacity and shifting leadership to local
actors. Oxfam International.
Kapucu, N., 2015. Leadership and collaborative governance in managing emergencies and
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Leisher, C. and et. al., 2018. A preliminary theory of change detailing how women’s
participation can improve the management of local forests and fisheries. SocArXiv.
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strengthening in low-income settings: Evidence from implementation of the Zambia
Management and Leadership course for district health managers in Zambia. PloS
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Rose, S., Collinson, E. and Kalow, J., 2017. Working Itself Out of a Job: USAID and Smart
Strategic Transitions. CGD Policy Paper, 113.
Sikipa, G. and et. al., 2019. Better Board Work for Better Leadership and Management:
Developing Governing Boards as Essential Enablers for Leadership Effectiveness in the
Health Sectors of Low and Middle Income Countries. Frontiers in Public Health, 7,
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Sonderman, K.A. and et. al., 2018. USAID: Current support for global surgery and implications
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Sparke, M., 2016. On the overlaps of geopolitics, geoeconomics, and USAID.
Taylor, M.E., Schumacher, R. and Davis, N., 2016. Mapping global leadership in child
health. Washington, DC: USAID.
Wells, B. and et. al., 2018, December. Building Earth Sciences Capacity and Addressing
International Development Objectives through NASA's participation in the USAID
Partnerships for Enhanced Engagement in Research (PEER) program. In AGU Fall
Meeting Abstracts.
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Online
HOME » WHO WE ARE » ORGANIZATION. 2019. [Online]. Available
Through:<https://www.usaid.gov/who-we-are/organization>.
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