Exploring Classic Leadership, Organizational Dilemmas, and Ethics

This essay explores the concept of decision-making within the context of classic leadership theories and ethical dilemmas. It reviews literature from various economists and researchers, analyzing how decision-making processes have evolved from ancient times to the modern era. The essay highlights the influence of factors such as emotions, intuition, and cognitive biases on managerial decisions. It also discusses the role of leaders as architects of the decision-making framework and emphasizes the importance of training leaders to motivate team members and make informed choices. The analysis concludes that decision-making remains a critical organizational process that requires capable individuals to consider all relevant aspects and theories.

Running head: CLASSIC LEADERSHIP AND ETHICAL DILEMMAS
CLASSIC LEADERSHIP AND ORGANIZATIONAL DILEMMAS

CLASSIC LEADERSHIP AND ORGANIZATIONAL DILEMMAS 1
Table of Contents
Introduction...........................................................................................................................................2
Analysis of Decision Making..................................................................................................................2
Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................4
References.............................................................................................................................................5

CLASSIC LEADERSHIP AND ORGANIZATIONAL DILEMMAS 2
Introduction
The importance of decision-making is not unknown is organizational and management
context. Decision-making is a team of business management in which an individual has to
make decisions as per the power and authority were given to him either by the management
or by his followers. The forms of decision-making have been changed over there are many
factors that affect the decision-making process of an individual. This report reviews the
literature provided by various economists and researchers in the field of decision-making.
The articles are analyzed up to the extent so that sufficient information related to decision-
making can be provided. In the end, a conclusion has been drawn to summarize the main
findings of the report and to frame an overview of the entire study. The entire study aims to
provide information about the concept of decision making and the changes in the same along
with the change in time and requirement of the conditions.
Analysis of Decision Making
The concept of decision-making is not new, as it existed in the professional as well as in
personal life form ancient times. Buchanan and O’Connel (2006), have describes the history
of decision making which reflects that this term is being used from 333 BC. As per the article
provided by them, in ancient times, the decision was based on the interpretations,
assumptions, dreams, and entrails. As the time passed, the concept of voting aroused which
was used by male citizens in Athens to choose their government. They have also analyzed the
contribution of computerized technology in the field of decision making which come into
existence at the end of the 19th century. On the other hand, Herbert and Simon (1987)
presented their opinion that intuitions and emotions impact the decisions made by managers
up to a great extent. A manager is required to know the impact of his/emotions on the
decision-making process and should act accordingly. Kahneman (2003) also have the same
opinion and provided his opinion in form of describing the concept of judgment and choice
with the help of accessibility, framing effects and prospect theory of change. The article
suggests that an individual is bound to take the decision at every stage of life as the problem
occurs. The decision-making is another the ultimate result of problem-solving processes.

CLASSIC LEADERSHIP AND ORGANIZATIONAL DILEMMAS 3
Tversky and Kahneman (1981) also have suggested the same concept in from the
psychological effects on the decision-making process. The article provided by them measures
the effect of psychology with the help of framing of contingencies and outcomes. The
concept of psychology is closely linked to the emotions and feelings of the individuals which
directly impact their way of thinking and ultimately the choices made by them.
As leaders play an important role in decision making, Millo (2014) have considered them as
architects in the decision-making framework. The literature provided by them concludes that
the main reasons behind poor decision making include a lack of proper motivation and
cognitive biases. Both of the factors can be managed by the applying appropriate leadership
practices by the managers and leaders.
Hayek (1945) have suggested that an individual can use his knowledge to make the decision
and to contribute the same for society. The article provided by Hayek is divided into three
main questions and is highly based on the secondary research. The article suggests the ways
to solve the problems with the help of available information and knowledge. March (1978)
had presented the concept of bounded rationality, ambiguity, and choices of the decision in
form of personal reflection. The information provided by him is highly based on primary
research.
March (1991) also has provided his opinion on how the decisions are farmed in the
organizations and the main factors affect the process of decision making. This article
provides the difference between the reality of decision making and the opinions of
individuals about the process. The author suggests that preferences affect the choice of
rational factors at the time of decision making and such preferences are not changeable in
nature. This information is based on the secondary research and there is a lack of practical
results which decreases the relevance of literature.
Alvisi et al (2003) have defined the impact of decision making in form of success of Sony
PlayStation. The author has presented the whole concept in an effective and precise manner
after conducting primary research and analyzing the data up to the level of satisfaction. The
results of this study can be further used to compare the changes in PlayStation industry or to
analyzing the impact on the profit of the organization.

CLASSIC LEADERSHIP AND ORGANIZATIONAL DILEMMAS 4
Most of the literature is based on secondary research which can either be used to carry out the
practical analysis or to conduct theoretical analysis in the field of decision making.
Conclusion
On the basis of the above study, it can be concluded that decision makers have changed a lot
as per the change in time and perspective of individuals. The decision used to be taken on the
basis of dreams and interpretations which is also a form of emotions. Thus, it can be stated
that the factors on which the decisions are made are similar to the decades. Only the theories
and techniques have been developed by the author to simplify each factor. Further, it also
concludes that the ultimate power of making decisions lies in the hands of managers and
leaders. Thus, it is required to train them in an efficient manner so hay they can motivate the
team members to make the right choices. The concept of psychology has also been discussed
in one or two articles on the basis of rational factors and ambiguity. The overall findings by
analyzing all the articles suggest that decision making is the sole process of every
organization and thus it is required to be completed by the capable persons after analyzing all
the aspects and theories in this regard.

CLASSIC LEADERSHIP AND ORGANIZATIONAL DILEMMAS 5
References
Alvisi, A., Narduzzo, A. and Zamarian, M., (2003) Playstation and the power of unexpected
consequences. Information Communication & Society, 6(4), pp.608-627.
Buchanan, L. and O Connell, A., (2006) A brief history of decision making. Harvard
business review, 84(1), p.32.
Hayek, F.A., (1945) The use of knowledge in society. The American economic review, 35(4),
pp.519-530.
Kahneman, D., (2003) A perspective on judgment and choice: mapping bounded
rationality. American Psychologist, 58(9), p.697.
MAKING, S.O.D., (2015) Leaders as decision architects. Harvard Business Review.
March, J.G., (1978) Bounded rationality, ambiguity, and the engineering of choice. The Bell
Journal of Economics, pp.587-608.
March, J.G., (1991) How decisions happen in organizations. Human-computer
interaction, 6(2), pp.95-117.
Simon, H.A., (1987) Making management decisions: The role of intuition and
emotion. Academy of Management Perspectives, 1(1), pp.57-64.
Simon, H.A., (1987) Making management decisions: The role of intuition and
emotion. Academy of Management Perspectives, 1(1), pp.57-64.
Tversky, A., and Kahneman, D., (1981) The framing of decisions and the psychology of
choice. science, 211(4481), pp.453-458.