Legal Requirements and Strategies for Police Interviewing

This report analyzes the legal and organizational requirements for interviewing suspects and witnesses in police investigations. It covers key aspects such as the Code of Practice for victims of crime, the Witness Charter, and the importance of human rights. The report details the PEACE model of interviewing (Planning and Preparation, Engage and Explain, Account, Closure, and Evaluation), outlining each stage and its significance. It explores resources for developing an interview strategy, including interview plans and considerations for different types of interviewees (vulnerable witnesses, intimidated individuals). The report emphasizes the importance of maintaining high standards, establishing professional relationships, and adapting techniques based on the interviewee's characteristics, such as cultural background, age, and health. It also addresses practical arrangements, the role of the interviewer and the need for empathy and sensitivity when dealing with vulnerable individuals. The report provides a comprehensive overview of the legal and practical aspects of police interviewing.

Running Head: POLICING
Policing
Name of the student:
Name of the University:
Author Note

1POLICING
1.1 Legal and organizational requirements for interviewing suspects
According to the provisions provided through code of practices for victims of crime 2015
1.32 when a victim is being interviewed by a police officer who has the responsibility of
investigating an offence he has to ensure that the interview is conducted without any unjustified
delay as soon as a complaint in relation to the offence been committed has been made. It is his
duty to keep the number of interviews as low as possible and only carryout interviews which are
mandatory in relation to the investigation. It is the duty of the police officer to allow the victim
the right of being accompanied by a person according to the choice of the victim unless a
contrary reasoned decision has been made. The police officer must also seek medical
examination only in situation where it is strictly necessary in order to successfully investigate
criminal proceedings and keep the medical examinations to a minimum otherwise. According to
code it is the duty of the police officer to ensure that no unnecessary contact with the suspect is
made by the victim or their family where an interview of the victim is required. It is also to be
ensure that the same person conduct interview of the victim unless the situation would cause
detriment to handling the investigation in a proper manner. The interview has to be conducted in
a premises which is adopted and designed for the purpose of the interview. It is also to be ensure
that the process of interview is carried out by a professionally trained person. In case the incident
in context is related to any kind of sexual or gender based violence the victim has to be provided
with the choice of getting the interview done by the person of the same sex.
The witness charter sets out a standard which a witness may expect when they are to be
interviewed by the police. The standard are set out by the carter under 21 provisions. These
provisions are related to the process of police investigation, pre-trial information, going to court,
arrival in court, in the court room and post-trial period. Although the standards are not binding

2POLICING
legally the level of legal service which as a witness a person may expect is that out by them. The
police officer has to treat the witness with dignity and respect at all times. It is also the duty of
the police officer to keep the witnessed informed about all stages involved in the process at all
times. The initial assessment of the needs of the witness has to be conducted by the police. These
assessments all in relation to any help which may be required by the witness for the purpose of
properly presenting the evidence. In addition to the witness charter the human right legislation
also provides that all witnessed must be treated with integrity and respect. It is the duty of police
officers to provide the interviewees basic Human Rights during the process of interview
conducted by them.
1.2. components of an interview strategy
It can be mentioned that in 1991 the Home office had formed a steering group. The basic
objective behind forming that group was to investigate and develop interview strategy. This
group had developed the PEACE model of interviewing (Walsh and Bull 2015). PEACE is an
acronym for: Planning and Preparation, Engage and Explain, Account, Closure and Evaluation.
Planning and Preparation
This is the first step of the interview strategy. Planning involves the process to setting up
the interview and getting it ready. Preparation for the interview generally involves getting the
environment, admin and location ready prior to the interview (Workman-Stark 2017). It can be
said that the planning process is important as it ensures that the interviewer goes in the right
direction while conducting the interview, ask the questions which are expected to produce
answers relevant to the charges brought against the suspect and remain in control of the

3POLICING
interview. It is to be mentioned that not every interview is well planned. The more serious the
offense the more time is invested in preparation of the interview by the police and the regulators.
Engage and Explain
It is to be mentioned that the opening phase of an interview can be instrumental to the
interviewer’s success. The interviewer in the opening phase is expected to warm up the
interviewee and assist the interviewee to be relaxed and engage in a relationship with the
interviewer so that a relaxed atmosphere is maintained throughout the interview. It can be said
that engaging with the interviewee is sometimes referred to as the rapport stage. The interviewer
is to maintain courtesy, politeness while conducting the interview. The interviewer will need to
explain the formalities of the interview (Walsh and Bull 2015). The interviewer needs to take
time in considering the situation of the interviewee and needs to explain to the interviewee the
importance of statements given by him.
Account
In this stage of the interview, the interviewer obtains the accounts of events as provided by
the interviewee. Therefore the main steps to be taken in this stage are:
 Obtaining the account of events as described by the interviewee
 Clarifying and expanding such account
 Challenging such interviewee’s account of events with information provided by other
interviewees
It is to be mentioned that good listening and questioning skills are required to be possessed
by the interviewer to obtain accurate and reliable information. During the process of the

4POLICING
interview the interviewer may be required to turn uncooperative from cooperative so it is
essential that he pays attention to whatever information is being provided by the interviewee.
However for conducting cooperative interviews the interviewer may use techniques of free
recall to start the interview and switch to cognitive technique of interviewing for to obtain
critical information.
Closure
An interview is usually closed in a hurry. It can be mentioned that interviewees tend to
advertently admit charges for a short term feeling of anticipated relief. During this phase the
issues enumerated below are to be paid attention to:
 It is important that the interviewee must have understood what happened during the
course of the interview
 The closure must ensure that the interviewee is certain that the evidence produced by
them is genuine and accurate
 The closure stage allow the interviewee to provide additional information
 The interviewee must be explained what is o happen in the next stage of the interview
Evaluation
This is the concluding stage of the aforementioned PEACE interview strategy. The
interviewer in this phase will atake short break to evaluate the notes made by them and checks
whether the aims and objectives of the interview have been fulfilled.

5POLICING
1.3. resources which can assist in developing an interview strategy
It is to be mentioned that the resources to be used in developing an interview strategy are
identified and applied in the planning and preparation phase of the interview
(App.college.police.uk 2018). All available information is taken into account in the planning
phase to identify the issues and objectives of such interview. Whether the interview to be
conducted would be successful or prove to be a failure depends on this stage.
Therefore the most important resource that is expected to assist in the developing the
interviewing strategy is an interview plan. It can be said that an interview plan gives the
interviewer the opportunity to review the investigation conducted, establish and identify all the
materials that are available and are essential to carry out the interview process. The interview
plan will also help the interviewer to determine the aims and objectives of the interview to be
conducted. The questions to be prepared during this phase which might be helpful t the
interviewer are:
 Who is to be interviewed and in which order is the interview to be carried out?
 Why is the view point of the interview important?
 What information needs to be obtained by carrying out the interview?
 At what time is the interviewee to be interviewed? It can be said that deciding whether to
interview someone immediately or wait to conduct interview until further evidence is
collected against such interviewee needs to be decided in this phase.
Identifying the characteristics of the interviewees is also important prior to conducting the
interview. Such information may help the interviewer to obtain desired results from the interview
(Bacon 2014). Information about interviewees may include the following points:

6POLICING
 Cultural background- Assessing the cultural background of the interviewee is
essential as it can provide the interviewer with the points to be addressed, it can also
help the interviewer identify whether an interpreter is required to conduct the
interview.
 Age- Relevant information about the age of the interviewee helps the interviewer to
assess the best time to conduct such interview.
 Religious background- Assessing the religious background of the interviewee helps
the interviewer identify whether to take prayer requirements into account
 Gender- It is to be mentioned that in case of sexual violation, the gender of the
interviewee is to be considered. Issues which are sensitive such as sexual orientation
of the interviewee or gender assignment should be dealt with in a tactful manner to
avoid any allegation of violation of the provisions of the Human Rights Act 1998.
 Physical and mental health- Relevant information about the physical and mental
health of the interviewee can help the interviewer ensure that appropriate facilities
are available while undertaking such interview
 Previous police records- Previous police records of interviewees are to be assessed to
determine factors such as safety of the interviewer and the reaction of the
interviewee.
Practical arrangements are also essential while planning the interview strategy. It can be
mentioned that interviewer might need to consider practical considerations and activities of
individuals in assessing the circumstance of the offenses (McDougall and Bull 2015). Some of
the examples of such practical arrangements include: visiting the crime scene, deciding the

7POLICING
location of the interview, determining the role of the interviewer, fixing a time for conducting
such interview and having proper knowledge of the offense.
1.4. relevant points they need to prove during interviews
It is to be mentioned that interviews are conducted by the police to obtain substantial
information about the offense committed. The interviewer interviews suspects and witnesses to
produce evidence to substantiate their claims against the suspects who are related to the offense
committed. It can be stated that interviewing is a complicated and a difficult process (Nhan
2014). The interviewer must ensure that high standards are maintained during the process of such
interview. It can be stated that an interview need not solely be conducted for the purpose of
obtaining information. It may be conducted for the purpose of providing witnesses and victims
with relevant and important information such as: the procedures of court proceedings, special
measures, witness protection and protection of identity. It is to be mentioned that the interviewer
must establish a professional relationship with the interviewee; he must be methodical while
conducting the interview such as following the PEACE model; he must also decide on the
location of the interview.
1.5. Different types of interviewees
It can be mentioned that interviewing suspects, witnesses and relevant other can be a
complicated process. Every individual has a unique set of characteristics and there needs to
interviewed differently by the interviewer.

8POLICING
Interviewing a vulnerable witness can be a difficult process. The interviewer needs to address
the issues that the interviewee has been a victim of very sensitively. It can be mentioned that
people who have been victims of sexual assaults, or violent criminal offenses are expected to be
in a vulnerable position (Van Craen 2016). In such a case the interviewer must have empathy for
the victim and must be sensitive to the interviewee’s needs. In such cases the interviewer must
take time to build a rapport with the interviewee so that he can relaxed throughout the interview.
In case of an intimidated interviewee, the interviewer must also engage a rapport with him to
ensure that he is not frightened by the interviewer. Intimidated interviewees can be eye witness
of violent criminal offenses therefore interviewing them is essential to collect relevant
information about such offenses. Therefore, it can be said that such intimidated interviewees
need to be dealt with sensitively. The interviewer must assure such intimidated interviewee that
disclosing any substantial information about any criminal offense would not place him in danger
(Legislation.gov.uk 2018).
It is to be mentioned that significant witnesses are often referred as key witness; therefore the
guidance to interview them is provided by the Achieving Best Evidence in Criminal Proceedings.
Significant witnesses are those who have or at least claim to have witnessed an indictable offense
or closely associated with such offense. Significant witnesses can also have a special relationship
with the victim.
It is to be mentioned that not only suspects and witnesses are interviewed, other people who
are relevant to the offense committed or suspects or victims are also interviewed. Examples of
such relevant others can include:

9POLICING
 Legal representatives- Legal representatives of the suspects may be interviewed for the
purpose of the criminal investigation. The legal representatives of such suspects need to
be given a copy of the charges brought against their clients.
 Appropriate adults- It is to be mentioned that whenever, a young person(aged 10-
17years) is detained for interviewing, an appropriate adult must be present during the
course of the interview. Such appropriate adult must ensure that the detainee understands
the caution given by the police at the start of the interview (Gov.uk 2018). Such
appropriate adult must intervene during the course of the interview if they feel it is
necessary for helping the detainee communicate freely with the police officer. He can
also intervene if they feel the questions being asked by the interviewer are repetitive,
oppressive and confusing. Such adult must be present if the detainee is asked to sign any
documentation
 Healthcare professionals- It is to be mentioned that interviewing a health care
professionals is important to provide advice on the need of an appropriate adult to be
present in case the interviewee suffers from any mental or physical disability of any sort.
According to code C annex G of the PACE 1984 states defines fitness to be interviewed.
It is to be said that healthcare professionals and police need to identify and assess
whether a detainee should be interviewed (Leese 2017). It is to be mentioned that if risks
are indentified the healthcare professionals need to advice provide recommendations to
the custody officer or the interviewer.
 Interpreters- It can be said that interpreters need to be present at the time of the
interview, if the interviewee is conversant in the language the interview is to be
conducted. However, only qualified interpreters are to be employed in the legal setting

10POLICING
according to the PACE. The officer who would be conducting the interview needs to
ensure that the interpreter knows the reasons of the interview (McDougall and Bull
2015). The officer must provide the interpreter with the address of the police station and
must also inform him the time of the time of such interview. The officer at the police
station must ensure that the interpreter and the BSL are not left together. The
interviewing officer must make himself familiar to the interpreter.
 Colleagues of such suspects or victims- The police may need to interview colleagues of
the suspects for the purpose of carrying on the criminal investigations. Such interview
must be conducted for the purpose of obtaining relevant information of the suspect and
the offense he has been involved with.
1.6 Importance of timing, location and environment for conducting interviews
For the purpose of conducting an interview of suspects and witnesses, the timing, location and
environment are very important factors (Tekin et al. 2015). As to the timing for conducting the
interviews, it must be conduct as early as possible, both for minimizing the risk of memory
contamination or forgetting and for the investigation purposes (Spradley 2016). For deciding the
time of conducting an interview, the following factors must be taken into consideration:
 Investigative factors- The needs and requirements of the investigation and how
quickly such investigation must be done. In other words, the urgency of
conducting the interview, in relation to the case, must be considered.
 Interviewee factors- While deciding the time of the case certain factors also must
be taken into consideration, which is related to the interviewee. These factors
include the needs of the interviewee in connection with the interview and whether

11POLICING
the interviewee would benefit or not if the interview is delayed. The decision of
the arrangement of the interview, with respect to time, must include the
interviewee as well.
 Memory factors- The memory factor is directly related to the purpose of
conducting the interview. The main purpose of the interview is to deduce
information from the interviewee regarding a particular case, which he or she has
wholly or partly witnessed. The longer the interview is delayed, the more is the
risk of risk contamination and forgetting. Therefore, the memory factor must be
considered while deciding the time of conducting an interview.
In cases, where a witness is traumatized, interview must be delayed. The preference of the
witness must also be seen as some want to get interviewed straightaway to get over with it and in
some cases the witness may prefer the interview to be delayed. In cases for e.g. family violence,
the victims are more forthcoming with information if they are interviewed immediately (Bruijnes
et al. 2015). It is in such cases, that the witness must be interviewed as near as reasonable as
possible to the event so that the investigation can be completed urgently.
Location is another important aspect or factor that must be considered (Davis et al. 2014). The
place where an interview is conducted should have the following characteristics:
 It is ideal to have an interview in a quiet room that is free from interruptions and
distractions, so that the interviewer and the interviewee can concentrate on the
matter to be settled or discussed.
 The witness must be asked about his preference regarding the place of interview
and then the place of interview can be decided accordingly.

12POLICING
 As to the sitting arrangement for an interview, ten to two should be the preferred
position.
 Considerations must be made regarding willingness to talk to a police officer in a
formal setting.
 Necessary equipments, which are required for the purpose of interviewing, must
be present in the place of the interview.
 All necessary communication aids, including pen, paper and, etc for taking notes,
drawing sketches, etc.
 Considerations for the implications where there is a need for a support person or
an interpreter.
 Refreshments, tissues, etc must also be provided for making the interview a
relaxing one for the interviewee.
An interview place, therefore, should contain the necessary equipments and aids and should also
ensure the confidentiality of the interviewee’s information. The place must make the interviewee
comfortable in giving the interview.
As to the environment of the place, the interviewee must feel safe in providing information. The
environment of the place of interview must not create any pressure on the interviewee in
providing information (Abbe and Brandon 2014). In short, the environment must be such, as to
help the interviewee in providing with the best evidence or information.
Thus, for conducting an interview for witnesses, the timing, place and environment must be
considered, as they are important aspects of an interview.

13POLICING
1.7 Critical analysis of approved interview techniques
There are various types of approved interviewing methods for suspects, which the police use.
They are:
Visual cues
This method or technique focuses on the nonverbal communication such as the body
posture or eye contact. The visual cues method rests on the skills and the practical experiences of
the interviewing officer and the expertise of the interviewee in dissembling (Sanoff 2016). Many
studies, in one hand, had shown that this method as of great value, but on the other hand, various
studies have also shown that this method is of limited value.
Baseline Method
This technique or method gives focus on both the speech and visual related cues, such as
degree of eye contact or hesitation in speech. The basic idea behind this technique is comparison
of an interviewee’s verbal and nonverbal responses during informal conversation, before actual
interview, which includes the responses (Strady et al. 2017). Studies have proven that the
baseline method or technique is much more useful than the visual cue tool, but it is also one the
other hand, very unreliable due to the wide range of individual interviewee behaviors.
Behavioral Analysis Interview (BAI)
The BAI technique or the Behavioral Analysis Interview also focuses on the verbal and
nonverbal responses of interviewees, but only to specific questions. The BAI has also been
described as a testing of nerves of the interviewees (Hu Bai and Guan 2017). However, studies
have suggested this method or technique to be of limited value as in some cases it has been seen

14POLICING
that those who were lying in interviews were less nervous and was more helpful than those
telling the truth.

15POLICING
Reverse Recall Technique
This method involves having the interviewee recount his story in reverse order. In 2007,
the first studies were established that demonstrated the effectiveness of the reverse recall
technique and it is already being used by the law enforcement of the US and the UK. The basic
idea of this technique is to increase the cognitive load of the interviewee, making it hard to
dissemble without giving nonverbal cues (Ewens et al. 2016) This technique has proven to be
very useful as in one UK case study, it was demonstrated that police were significantly better in
discriminating between truthful and false accounts, when viewing videos of reverse recall
interviews.
Cognitive Interview Technique
The cognitive interview technique was designed for the purpose of interviewing victims
and witnesses. The concept behind this technique is to help witnesses in recollecting in as much
detail as possible and in general to recreate the context of the event for simulating the
interviewee’s memory. This method is a very informal one and the interviewees are encouraged
by the interviewers to express his feelings. In case the interviewee becomes emotional or
distress, there is no compulsion to continue the interview (Bowling 2014). This method,
therefore, due to its flexibility and leniency and also by results in various cases, has proven to be
a very effective technique of in getting the victims and the witnesses to recall various important
details, which help in solving crimes.
1.8 Contingencies during interviews and ways to deal with them
While interviewing victims, various contingencies may arise. Some of the contingencies
which may arise or which the interviewer may face while interviewing a victim are:

16POLICING
 Welfare issues- One of the contingencies that may arise during interviewing a
witness is welfare issues. Interviewers, given the task of interviewing witnesses
and victims must consider the welfare needs of such person throughout the
interview. For the purpose, certain factors must be considered (Creswell and Poth
2017). They are:
a. Mental capacity and the age of the witness or victim.
b. The welfare and emotional health of the witness.
c. The skill of the witness with regards to language (use of interpreters with
proper guidelines).
d. Requirement of a witness intermediary through the witness intermediary
scheme.
e. The ways to prevent the occurrence of further offences, such as witness
intimidation.
In cases of some witnesses, third party support may be beneficial, provided that such
support is not connected with the investigation or interview.
The intermediary scheme is a way to overcome the welfare issues in an interview.
According to this scheme, all intermediaries are vulnerable and can obtain help from an
intermediary (Crane et al. 2016). In case of any communication problem in an interview, an
intermediary can be appointed to solve such issues and help the interviewee to give the best
evidence.

17POLICING
Another method that helps in solving welfare issues is witness intimidation. This method
provides the interviewee with an offer for a service in relation to their requirements that will
make them more likely to give evidences in court (Walsh et al. 2017).
 Hostile behavior
Hostile witnesses are those people, who are believed to have witnessed an offence, part of
an offence or events closely connected to such offence, but are against the investigation process
or they are biased against the examining party. Their lifestyle or their close relationship with the
alleged party, are the reasons for their opposition and for appearing as defense witness in the
courts (Schönenberg and Jusyte 2014). Some of the witnesses may refuse to give statements and
some may give false information.
To deal with such witnesses, the interviews must be video recorded so that it can be used
as a proof, in case such witness objects to it later.
 Refusal to make a statement
There are certain witnesses who refuse to provide with any statement to an investigator
(Hess Orthmann and Cho 2016). In such cases attention must be brought to the CPS regarding
any witness, who has been interviewed, but refuses to provide any statement.
In cases of such contingencies, the investigator must outline the details of the material
that the witness provided along with all copies of any notes or statements that the witness had
refused to sign. All relative information must be provided to the CPS, as it may become crucial
in case the witness is later called as a defense witness.
 Reluctant behavior

18POLICING
Another contingency may arise when a witness is reluctant. These witnesses are usually
reluctant to become involved in the investigation process (Hershkowitz Lamb and Katz 2014).
They become reluctant due to the following reasons:
 Negative perception of the police or criminal justice process.
 The fear of the alleged criminal.
 The response of the community, where they live.
 Worries about their identity being released.
 The process is uncertain.
All relevant information must be provided to the reluctant witnesses. Specific details of
the allegation or particulars about whatever the witness has seen shall not be discussed. No
pressure must be put on the witness for giving evidence The function of the investigator should
be simply giving the witness enough information to the witness for deciding to give assistance or
not. Records of anything said or any contact should be kept.
In such cases, it is a must for the investigator to inform the CPS about the reluctant
witnesses, as the prosecutor may be able to apply for a witness, who summons to secure their
attendance.
 Health issues
Another type of contingency that can arise during an interview is health issue of an
interviewee. Any interviewee can have health related issues and during interviews it can happen
that an interviewee may fall sick (Bowling 2014).

19POLICING
In such circumstances, the interviewee must gather knowledge about such problems, that
is, he must ensure that the interviewer must ensure that the interviewee has health issues, which
can affect the interview. Accordingly, he must conduct the interview and ask the interviewee
questions, keeping in mind the health issues of the interviewee. Light questions may be asked,
and health care facilities must be kept ready during such interviews to prevent any health related
issues, i.e. all the necessary equipments that may be required to protect the interviewee, in case
any such health problem arises.
1.9 Importance of conducting interviews ethically and effectively
Ethical behavior is based on the knowing the difference between what is moral and what
is legal. It is the sole responsibility of the interviewer to conduct an interview and to decide the
methods to be employed for the interview. Therefore, it is the conscience of the interviewer that
acts as a benchmark (Pope 2015).
It is the duty of the interviewer to conduct interviewer by adhering to ethical standards,
regardless of the alleged offence or unsavory personality of the interviewee. The behavior of the
interviewer is not controlled by the criminal justice system, the interviewee or the immediate
situation, but by the interviewer himself.
Interviews are built on information gathered by all possible resources. The interviewer
uses all the possible methods and techniques for obtaining information and for taking out the
reliable and valid facts. With time, it is becoming evident that any information that is obtained by
using a coercive technique or method is inherently unreliable. There is no justified reason
suppressing or obtaining falsely relevant information. It requires real hard work to conduct an
interview and no excuse, including fatigue or disinterest, ethically allows shortcuts in interviews

20POLICING
(Tekin et al. 2015). The interviewing of witnesses is likely to bring with better evidence, which
in return results in gaining valid information about the suspect. The English Judicial System also
gives importance to whether or not the police behave in a fair manner towards the vulnerable
suspects, such as those with special needs or low negligence.
In many cases it has been seen that deception is a method which has been used by the
police for extracting confessions before the court or deceptive actions like false promises,
misleading a suspect for making confessions (Vanderhallen and Vervaeke 2014). These methods
are examples of unethical rather than illegal behavior.
It must be noted that it is necessarily important to conduct interviews of suspects in both
ethical and effective manner. In criminal cases, interviews are conducted for extracting the true
facts of the cases and for collecting evidence in order to bring out the truth and for providing
justice. Not only ethical measures and standards should be maintained while conducting an
interview, but also such methods must be used, which are effective i.e. must bring out all the
necessary and relevant information (Meissner Kelly and Woestehoff 2015). Thus, it is very much
important to use both ethical and effective investigation methods.

21POLICING
Bibliography
Abbe, A. and Brandon, S.E., 2014. Building and maintaining rapport in investigative
interviews. Police practice and research, 15(3), pp.207-220.
App.college.police.uk. (2018). Investigative interviewing. [online] Available at:
https://www.app.college.police.uk/app-content/investigations/investigative-interviewing/
[Accessed 21 Jan. 2018].
Bacon, M., 2014. Police culture and the new policing context. The future of policing, pp.103-
119.
Bowling, A., 2014. Research methods in health: investigating health and health services.
McGraw-Hill Education (UK).
Bowling, A., 2014. Research methods in health: investigating health and health services.
McGraw-Hill Education (UK).
Bruijnes, M., Linssen, J., op den Akker, R., Theune, M., Wapperom, S., Broekema, C. and
Heylen, D., 2015. Social behaviour in police interviews: Relating data to theories. In Conflict
and Multimodal Communication (pp. 317-347). Springer International Publishing.
Cordner, G., 2014. Community policing. The Oxford handbook of police and policing, pp.148-
171.
Crane, L., Maras, K.L., Hawken, T., Mulcahy, S. and Memon, A., 2016. Experiences of autism
spectrum disorder and policing in England and Wales: Surveying police and the autism
community. Journal of autism and developmental disorders, 46(6), pp.2028-2041.
Crank, J.P., 2014. Understanding police culture. Routledge.

22POLICING
Crawford, A. and Evans, K., 2017. Crime prevention and community safety (pp. 797-824).
Oxford University Press.
Creswell, J.W. and Poth, C.N., 2017. Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among
five approaches. Sage publications.
Davis, R.C., Jensen, C.J., Burgette, L. and Burnett, K., 2014. Working smarter on cold cases:
Identifying factors associated with successful cold case investigations. Journal of forensic
sciences, 59(2), pp.375-382.
European Convention on Human Rights 1999 - 2000
Ewens, S., Vrij, A., Mann, S. and Leal, S., 2016. Using the Reverse Order Technique with Non‐
Native Speakers or Through an Interpreter. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 30(2), pp.242-249.
Gov.uk. (2018). Appropriate adults: guide for youth justice professionals - GOV.UK. [online]
Available at: https://www.gov.uk/guidance/appropriate-adults-guide-for-youth-justice-
professionals [Accessed 21 Jan. 2018].
Hershkowitz, I., Lamb, M.E. and Katz, C., 2014. Allegation rates in forensic child abuse
investigations: Comparing the revised and standard NICHD protocols. Psychology, Public
Policy, and Law, 20(3), p.336.
Hess, K.M., Orthmann, C.H. and Cho, H.L., 2016. Criminal investigation. Cengage Learning.
Hu, W., Bai, J. and Guan, H., 2017. Investigation on a method of increasing mortise and tenon
joint strength of a fast growing wood. Journal of Beijing Forestry University, 39(4), pp.101-107.
Human Rights Act 1998

23POLICING
Leese, M., 2017. Mental Health, Vulnerability & Risk in Police Custody. Journal of Adult
Protection, The.
Legislation.gov.uk. (2018). Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984. [online] Available at:
https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1984/60/contents [Accessed 21 Jan. 2018].
McDougall, A.J. and Bull, R., 2015. Detecting truth in suspect interviews: the effect of use of
evidence (early and gradual) and time delay on criteria-based content analysis, reality monitoring
and inconsistency within suspect statements. Psychology, Crime & Law, 21(6), pp.514-530.
Meissner, C.A., Kelly, C.E. and Woestehoff, S.A., 2015. Improving the effectiveness of suspect
interrogations. Annual review of law and social science, 11, pp.211-233.
Nagin, D.S., Solow, R.M. and Lum, C., 2015. Deterrence, criminal opportunities, and
police. Criminology, 53(1), pp.74-100.
Nhan, J., 2014. Police culture. The Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice.
Pope, K.S., 2015. Are the American Psychological Association’s Detainee Interrogation Policies
Ethical and Effective?. Zeitschrift für Psychologie.
Sanoff, H., 2016. Visual Research Methods in Design (Routledge Revivals). Routledge.
Schönenberg, M. and Jusyte, A., 2014. Investigation of the hostile attribution bias toward
ambiguous facial cues in antisocial violent offenders. European archives of psychiatry and
clinical neuroscience, 264(1), pp.61-69.
Spradley, J.P., 2016. The ethnographic interview. Waveland Press.

24POLICING
Strady, E., Dang, V.B.H., Némery, J., Guédron, S., Dinh, Q.T., Denis, H. and Nguyen, P.D.,
2017. Baseline seasonal investigation of nutrients and trace metals in surface waters and
sediments along the Saigon River basin impacted by the megacity of Ho Chi Minh
(Vietnam). Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 24(4), pp.3226-3243.
Tekin, S., Granhag, P.A., Strömwall, L., Giolla, E.M., Vrij, A. and Hartwig, M., 2015.
Interviewing strategically to elicit admissions from guilty suspects. Law and human
behavior, 39(3), p.244.
Tekin, S., Granhag, P.A., Strömwall, L., Giolla, E.M., Vrij, A. and Hartwig, M., 2015.
Interviewing strategically to elicit admissions from guilty suspects. Law and human
behavior, 39(3), p.244.
Van Craen, M., 2016. Understanding police officers’ trust and trustworthy behavior: A work
relations framework. European Journal of Criminology, 13(2), pp.274-294.
Vanderhallen, M. and Vervaeke, G., 2014. Between investigator and suspect: The role of the
working alliance in investigative interviewing. In Investigative interviewing (pp. 63-90).
Springer New York.
Walsh, D. and Bull, R., 2015. Interviewing suspects: Examining the association between skills,
questioning, evidence disclosure, and interview outcomes. Psychology, crime & law, 21(7),
pp.661-680.
Walsh, D., Oxburgh, G.E., Redlich, A.D. and Myklebust, T. eds., 2017. International
Developments and Practices in Investigative Interviewing and Interrogation: Volume 1: Victims
and witnesses. Routledge.

25POLICING
Workman-Stark, A.L., 2017. Understanding Police Culture. In Inclusive Policing from the Inside
Out (pp. 19-35). Springer International Publishing.