University of Sunderland: Masters Swimming Motivation Research Project

This report investigates the factors that underpin motivation in masters swimming, a topic within the field of sports and exercise science. The introduction highlights the benefits of swimming, its history, and its role in therapeutic interventions and competitive sports. The literature review examines the relationship between physical activity, physical condition, and health, emphasizing the positive effects of swimming on the musculoskeletal, neurological, and cardiovascular systems. It also explores the importance of motivation, including social and intrinsic factors, self-efficacy, and lifestyle behaviors. The report discusses the history of swimming as a competitive sport, the emergence of masters swimming, and the influence of social motivation on exercise behavior. It also defines motivation and its impact on individuals' journeys toward achieving their goals. The research incorporates factors related to the determinants of healthy lifestyles, cognitive brain functions, and the role of motivation in the uptake and continuation of exercise programs.

Running Head: SOCIOLOGY
Swimming and motivation
Name of the Student
Name of the University
Authors Note

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Introduction
Sports is a very critical part of therapeutic interventions and also a very important
exercise that is studied in exercise science and also used in physical therapy and sports science as
important part of the training. Swimming itself is a very known sport and it is highly important
that the swimmers are motivated towards the enhancement of their performances and it is also
very critical that the various aspects of the therapeutic interventions are also coupled with
swimming that has shown various benefits in the neurological as well as in the orthopaedic
problems as well (Karau 2019). It is important to note that the many of the swimmers who are
known to swim at a competitive level are unaware of the benefits of the swimming process that
would help them in betterment of their well-being and improvement of their health related
performances in pertinence to swimming and other activities.
Swimming
Swimming is a physical activity in which the human body moves through the water,
usually without any artificial assistance. Swimming is now promoted as a health and well-being
promotion program among the clubs and the recreational activity centre in United States and
there are also various swimming programs that are funded by the government of United States in
order to deliver a more positive social and sociocultural community support to the subjects, thus
improving their health in prevention of the various muscular, neuromuscular and metabolic
diseases that occur with age and by leading of a sedentary life. The spread of swimming in the
world has been influenced by people’s concerns, geographic and climatic conditions. Swimming
has been documented since the prehistoric period with the oldest representations being found are
cave drawings from Gilf Kebir (Egypt). Substance abuse and addiction is critical to the negative
impact that are prevalent in a society and a positive recreation and fitness development amongst

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the adults, booth young and old, has become a central theme in the exercise and rehabilitation
programs that affects thee health and bodily development of the individual in addition to
functional status elevation of the persons in a very positive manner.
The action of swimming leaves a profound effect on the musculoskeletal system of the
human body, the neurological and most importantly on the cardiovascular system of the human
body and it is highly important that the various types of the exercises pertaining to swimming
activity and training sessions are measured properly and the intensity, frequency and the
repetitions of the swimming exercise are analysed properly by thee exercise physiologists and
the other exercise science specialists in order to deliver a proper scientific training protocol to the
subjects who are into or undergoing swimming training. It is important to be noted that any
exercise that is pertaining to increase the physiological and anatomical parameters of the body
and it is important that at first the effect of the exercise on the human body and the effect of
swimming on the human body are tallied with the various determinants of exercise and lifestyle
which are physiological, psychological, biological, social, psychosocial and health factors that
affects the level of exercise to be received and the outcomes of an exercise produced. Swimming
leaves a very important effect on the muscular, cardiorespiratory, metabolic and the morphology
of the individual undergoing the swimming training for fitness and sports purposes needs to
studied and understood as well as it is a very critical factor that influences the training protocol
of the individual and the exercise parameters to great extent as well (Perera, Åkerlund and
Hägglund2019). More importantly, the level of wellness, thee rates of mortality and morbidity in
a particular population has to be taken into count while measuring and delivering a swimming
program to a community as a group therapy or a group activity session. Highly important is the
fact that the various levels of the exercise is critically related to the bodily demands of the

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individual or the exercise needs of the individual in relation to a certain sport and it is more than
important and vital that the biopsychosoical factors are taken into consideration while analysing
the factors and the multiples of the exercise therapy program. The very important aspect of
swimming exercise program is also affected by thee social factors, the level of interest of an
individual, lifestyle behaviours, the personal attributes and the behavioural patterns of the
individual also affect the level of motivation of an individual towards day to day swimming
exercise protocols and exercises. The balance between the level of physical activity and thee
level of the leisure activity also affects the level of individual’s motivation (intrinsic and
extrinsic) of an individual. Self-efficacy is another very important aspect of the human
motivation and behaviour that affects and influences the level of interest development towards a
swimming exercise program and more than vital is the fact that the factors and the determinants
are taken into concern and consideration by the swimming trainers and the exercise science
specialists in order to deliver a proper and effective program to the athletes and the subjects.
Importance of Swimming in sports
Swimming emerged as a competitive sport in the early 1800’s in England. The St
George’s Baths was opened to the public in 1828 and was the first indoor swimming pool in the
world. In 1837, sports swimming makes its appearance in England, the "homeland of modern
swimming". This is the year in which the first "National Swimming Association" swimming club
founded by John Strachan appears in London. Great Britain is often regarded as the one that
founded the first competitive swim. In 1869 the first Amateur Swimming Association was
founded in London, with the purpose of organizing competitive events.

4Swimming and motivation
In the middle of 1890, women were allowed to participate in these national swimming
championships. In January 1858, the first world swimming championship took place in Australia
in Captain Kenney’s Ship Baths at St. Kilda, Melbourne. Hence, both the genders from different
parts of the society is involved and motivated towards the participation in sport related
swimming programs.
History of Masters swimming
In 1970, Masters Swimming officially made its appearance in the world of sports with the
first USA National Championship of Masters Swimming in the Amarillo Aquatic Club to offer
older swimmers (i.e. ex-competitors and beginners) a more attractive incentive, and offer an
objective to maintain fitness (Medicet al. 2019)
The first national masters swimming competition was held in Toronto, Canada in 1978,
where athletes over the age of 25 years participated in age groups. This competition had more
than 400 participants from 10 countries. Age groups were designated in 5 year intervals. The
second championship took place in 1984 in Christchurch, New Zealand. These two editions were
not under the supervision of FINA, however, Masters Swimming became an official member of
the FINA (International Federation of Natation Amateur) in 1986.
Literature review
To understand the various aspects of the masters swimming program in pertinence to
motivation, it is to be understood that the physiological constructs are critical to the various
aspects of behaviour and demands related to the motivation required to pursue and continue the
masters swimming program.

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The relationship between physical activity, physical condition and health
It is to be understood that the various asprects of the psycholoogical parameters that are
reequired to be maintained in the masters athletes to help them continue with the program and
sustain the various aspects of the exercises in swimming activities is related to the physical
activity and the physical condition of the athlete. Swimming has shown and revealed to be
beneficial for the upliftment of the physical mobility, betterment of the muscular flexibility,
better the neuromuscular coordination and neurological firing as well as neurological recruitment
in the persons undergoing swimming training sessions or just swimming activity(Perera,
Åkerlund and Hägglund 2019).
It is to be noted that the swimming activity betters the coordination in body and
movements – being an very integral aspect of the human interaction with the environment and
with the other humans in the society and movement is also a very important aspect of human or
interpersonal communication(Seghers et al., 2014). The various aspects of muscle movements
such as flexibility, extension and co-actions that occurs in the human neuromuscular system aree
greatly attributed to the swimming training and swimming exercises that have show a positive
effect in the physical and psychological system.
Alkatan et al. (2016) aims to study ‘Improved function and reduced pain after swimming
and cycling training in patients with osteoarthritis’and finds out the effect of swimming to be
very positive and beneficial on the functional status elevation of the subject and it is critical to be
understood, as according to the researchers of this study, that swimming improves the
cardiovascular parameters facilitating venous return and facilitating proper circulation in the
subjects with osteoarthritis patients. When swimming is intervened with cycling, the
cardiovascular parameters as well the movement parameters of the disease that is osteoarthritis is

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bettered, is improved with swimming and there is overall fitness development in the subjects
with musculoskeletal and orthopaedic problems.
Figure 1. Determinants of healthy lifestyle and the influence of other factors (After Bouchard,
Blair, Haskell, 2007).
Physical activity in older populations
Recent studies have shown that cognitive brain functions, which determine concentration,
data processing speed, short-term memory and flexibility of thinking, radically improve in older
people as a result of practicing sports or physical activities. (Musich 2017). Swimming as a
sports activity has stimulatory effects: increased concentration, psychomotor development,

7Swimming and motivation
physical development and growth of the cellular components in the body, increased immunity,
improved cardiovascular function, increased resistance(Olsonet al.2017). The various aspects of
the cognitive and intellectual parameters in relation to problem solving and decision making was
shown to have improved with thee swimming activity, administered in a therapeutic regime.
General Motivation
Motivation as a Concept
Observation learning and social learning play a critical role in the initiation of
motivational drives that affect the behaviour and this has been seen as a critical factor in the
initiation of swimming related motivation as well. Role modelling and vicarious learning are the
important factors that affect the various parameters related to motivational experiences and the
masters swimmers affect the various aspects of the swimming related motives in the young
swimmers (Myers 2018).
Anderson, A.R. and Ramos, W.D., (2018) aims to study ‘Social motivation and health in
college club swimming’ and found out that social motivation play a very critical role in the
development of exercise intake behaviour and the urge to develop the various aspects of the
swimming exercises is very much dependent on the social motivation. According to the
researchers of the study – the various important underlying factors that motivate an individual to
take up swimming is dependent on the level of social observation and social role modelling and
the researchers of the study emphasize the impact of social motivation by the elders as an

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important tool to join swimming and gym in order to maintain health and well-being, on a
general basis. More importantly, the recreational sport club in the community and in the colleges
motivates the young people to join their health and wellness swimming programs through a
social motivation.
Definition of Motivation
Motivation is a very intrinsic aspect of the human drive and the needs of the individual
are fulfilled by the actions determined by this motivational drives. The behavioural and the
psychological drives in addition to the sociological drives are critical aspects of motivation and it
is to be understood that the various aspects of the fitness and well-being parameter are greatly
affected by these drives. Motivation is defined as a drive that directed towards the fulfilment of a
desire or working away from the way of an aversion (De Meesteret al. 2017). The motivation can
be internal or external, as well as subjective and objective. Motivation shapes the journey of an
individual towards the fulfilment of a drive and towards the fulfilment of a goal and it is highly
important that the various aspects of the goal are first realized by the individual, prior to the
motivational drive development and as the journey of an individual in addition to the life
experience of an individual is always subjective – it can be said that the motivation, irrespective
of its source has to be internalized by the individual in order to deliver a more quality response or
action to the stimulus provided. The outcomes of a motivational experience is many and can
always be subjective with respect to the feelings and understandings of the individual. Perception
again plays a very critical role in the motivational experience of an individual and it is highly
important to understand that the various aspects of the human motivations also concern each
individual's interest, particularities and subjectivity. Thus, we have to do with the mechanism of
motivation but also with the subjective and objective implications as well.

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Motivation play a great role in the development or dissolution of a complex and more so
over, the drive is from the direction of inferiority complex to the development of superiority
complex.The complexes are synchronous with the decision plan and which analyses different
factors at the mental level. In this sense, the motivation that can be intrinsic or extrinsic is
amplified (Karau 2019). The level reached here has to do with the human needs and necessities
that must be satisfied. The conflicts are more common to human nature when passing through the
adolescent stages of development and a state of healthy well-being is a great facilitator of the
positive being and becoming experience. Swimming and other exercises again has been seen to
better the cognitive patter, the clarity of decision making and the positive acceptance of life and
it state and motivation towards the better living ways is also attributed by proper and daily
exercising as well as by undertaking the regimes of swimming trainings which has been shown
to better the conflicts between body and mind.
Functions of Motivation
The chief functions of motivation are the propulsive, activating and energizing function (in
which motivation act by general activation orspecified activation of the generating voltage gated
channel in development of desired behaviours and the elimination of undesired behaviours. The
targeting and choice function, in addition to selective action, is developed by of a condition of
selectivity in relation to the ambiance and this is a very important function of motivation (Karau
2019).
Cohen-Zimerman and Hassin, 2017 focusses to understand ‘Implicit Motivation Makes the
Brain Grow Younger: Improving Executive Functions of Older Adults’ and finds out motivation

10Swimming and motivation
is an implicitly driven process that affect the level of cognition of a subject and motivation is
directed impacted negatively by the process of cognitive aging. With development of age and
degeneration of the cognitive processes – it is critical to understand that the various facets of the
motivation and its development are affected by the cognitive domain and psychomotor domain
degeneration. The executive function that is involved with the memory processes is directly
affected by the level of arousal and the level of motivation in concern to an aging individual and
it is highly important that the motivation of health and well-being of an individual is taken into
consideration.The researchers of this study used Wisconsin Card Sorting Testto understand the
phenomenon.
Motivation is divided into:
1. Sub-motivation should not be used and encouraged as it leads to decrease in the
performances related to work and various types of the activities related to swimming
is reduced in relation to the senior swimmers as well. It should be avoided because it
can be related to the task and the attitude towards it induces an anticipatory assembly
in which the load is underestimated and therefore the task could be treated easily,
which could lead to failure (Vallerand 2007)
2. According to neurophysiology, there is an optimum of the state of wakefulness, the
shift of wakefulness- sleep cycle of the degree of arousal of the brain, of the states of
momentum and as a result, the body will act to achieve this optimum through raising
or lowering the level of the three elements (De Meesteret al.2017).Optimal
motivation is a type of motivation given as being superior to the other two, because it
facilitates the maximum resolution of the task and represents a medium intensity
motivation that avoids extremes.

11Swimming and motivation
3. Over-motivation works based on Yerkes' law (1908), which states that it should be
avoided. According to this law there is an inverse relationship of activation between
the level of motivation and characteristics of a performance. Over-motivation is
mounting anticipatory, generated by the overestimation of the tasks perceived as
difficult. It is contraindicated because the affective overactivation leads to
mobilization, disorganization of the activity, making it more stressful, depletes the
energy fund, and even before of confrontation with the task, induces failure.
From intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to attributions and goal orientation, theory and
studies related to motivation in sport abound. However, theorists such as Adler, Frankl and
Maslow detail broader motivational frameworks, which aim to determine the wide range of
impulses that people have in order to reach their goals (Leidl, 2009).
Motivation in Sport
Sport should be organized in such a way that every athlete has access to success. To
achieve this goal, the notion of success may be redfined from winning events to, first of all,
reaching the personal goal of each individual athlete.
The desire to win the race is a valid and valuable goal, but short term for the athlete. As
mentioned before, the learning of athletes to fully commit to being the best at reaching a difficult
and valuable goal is a benefit (Pedersenet al.2017). If the result is positive, we speak of
motivation for success; if it is negative, then it is motivation to avoid failure. Each person avoids
failure and seeks success.

12Swimming and motivation
Ntoumanis et al. (2018) aims to understand ‘Need supportive communication:
Implications for motivation in sport, exercise, and physical activity’ and finds out various aspects
of the functions and roles played by the sport coaches in the supportive communication
development with the athletes and the trainees to motivate them to perform better in the
swimming and other sport activity. Engagement of the athletes to the training programs and the
various aspects of the performances are directly correlated and the bridging is done through
motivation. Coaches, physical education teachers, family members,
Theories related to motivation and physical activity
The research of self-determination theory
Physical activity is necessary for both physical and mental well being. Swimming is
highly recommended as an activity throughout the lifespan as it is mostly aerobic in nature but it
is relatively stress-free on joints due to water supporting the body (De Meesteret
al.2017).However, Master Swimming is a more structured approach to swimming, often
mimicking of general competitive swimming and is physically and mentally demanding.Little is
known about why older people begin or continue into advanced years with this demanding
regime. This project is intended to further knowledge in this area.
Stenling, A., & Tafvelin, S. (2016) aims to study ‘Transfer of training after an
organizational intervention in Swedish sports clubs: A self-determination theory perspective’ and
finds out that the autonomic motivation and facets of the intrinsic motivation play a critical role
in the development of the autonomic self-efficacy function in the individuals undergoing sports
and training programs. The self determination of a subject is critically important to the
stimulation of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in an individual and the researchers of this study

13Swimming and motivation
refers to the autonomy supportive climate in the sport clubs and in the recreational swimming
clubs to be very important and useful to the building of self -determination of an individual and it
is very important that the coaches, the administrators and the sport coordinator, the club
operational manager – all of them contribute to the various aspects of the self and supported
autonomy in order to improve the performance of an individual that is of an athlete, thus helping
in better physical and mental health functioning in relation and in response to the exercise
training program that is been administered.
To the extent that these needs are met, the person will function and develop effectively by
touching the "well-being".
Competence is defined by the Indvidian desire to be effective when it comes into contact with
the environment. Throughout their lives, people get involved in their environment to take over
and be effective in this environment.
Autonomy targets the individual's desire to experience the will and act in accordance with their
own values and interests.
Related-ness is defined by the individual's desire to interact with other individuals within the
environment, to experience the care of other people, to be connected with them. Often their
purpose is to target them together.

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Fig 2: Various facets of the self-determination theory
Goal Contents Theory
The concept of goal content emphasizes the differences between goals that can be
internal or external and that affect well-being. Given that these goals can differently meet the
basic needs differently, they create differently or contribute differently to well-being. That is
why a positive start contributes to a "smart" development. Swimming is used not only as
recreational activity, but also for therapeutic purposes (Seghers et al. 2014)

15Swimming and motivation
Zhang, Zhang & Li, (2018) aims to study ‘The effect of intrinsic and extrinsic goals on
work performance. Personnel Review’ and finds out the correlation between dedicative
performance, task performance, adaptive performance and interpersonal performance to
understand the level of self-efficacy and goal oriented behaviour. The level of motivation is
critical to the various aspects of the goal achieving and the researchers of this study refers to a
level of intrinsic satisfaction developed or received from the fulfilling of an extrinsic goal as
well. The external and the internal factors are to be balanced in order to deliver a more oriented
and correct behavioral output shaped by a motivation. The various aspects of the motivation –
internal and external is determined by the level of commitment and ownership towards their own
goals and aims in life. The work performance of the individuals, is determined by the level of
motivation of the subjects.
Motivation in Swimming
By Age
It was discovered that adults rated fitness and health as being more important than social
status as a result of their participation in high-profile events, as reported by older swimmers
(Brodkin & Weiss, 1990). Other variables that were used to examine the motivation of the adult
participant in sport were revealed as significant. They were recognized as influences for
motivational behaviour, such as improving or maintaining fitness, the desire to work in a group,
to be with friends. The older swimmers were affected and impacted by more diversified social
and physiological factors as compared to the younger adults who had a more restricted approcah
towards swimming. Varsha and Shashikala, 2017 aimed to study‘Effect of Swimming on

16Swimming and motivation
Cognition in Elderly’ and found out that the exercise that is related to swimming and other
aquatic activities have a positive effect on the improvement of the cognitive function of the
elderly with a special emphasis on the improvement of the chief executive function, the working
memory loop was improved as well in response to the swimming activities given to the patients
with dementia and other neuropsychological disorders that is degenerative with age.
By Sex
In a research ,the relation between motivation and sex has been examined among the
triathletes(López-Fernández, Merino-Marbán and Fernández-Rodríguez,2014) . the reserch has
been shown that the amotivation factors or scores are higher in men in comparison to the
women athletes. The self determination framewiork help to understand the level of
motivation in the triathletes of different sex. The wonmenj athletes show high intrinsic
motivation and less extrinsic motivation. The study also provides the information that the
motivation difference among different sexes is not affected by the competition level and different
age limits.
By location
More than 70% people of Uk are involved in swimming with positive activity(White et al.,
2016). Approximately 22.4 million peole arev engaged in swimming which represents 47% of
the population.7 million people of Uk participate in swimming in a week whereas every minth
13.2 million people are involved in swimming. In UK , it has been proven by a study that 28%
risk of early death will be lowered by swimming and 41% of risk for heart disease can be
reduced by thius practice(White et al., 2016).

17Swimming and motivation
Research Objectives and Significance
1. What motivates people to practice masters swimming in the North East of England?
2. Are the motives different by the age category (e.g. 20 to 35 years vs. 35 to 45 etc. )
3. Are there differences by sex?
4. Are there differences by experiential level?

18Swimming and motivation
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