MSc HwTM/IHM/MA CAM: Managing Across Cultures Literature Review

This literature review critically examines empirical research in international and cross-cultural management, focusing on work from the past two decades, as required by the MSc HwTM/IHM/MA CAM module. The review delves into the impact of cultural dimensions, particularly Hofstede’s model and the GLOBE project, on various industries, including tourism, and their implications for business practices. The analysis includes discussions on power distance, individualism, masculinity, and other cultural aspects, as well as the influence of cultural distance on visitor satisfaction. The review also addresses research methodologies, including both qualitative and quantitative approaches, and critiques the methodologies used in the studies. The assignment highlights the importance of understanding cultural differences in a globalized business environment, considering how these differences affect management behavior, marketing strategies, and overall business success.

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Manning cross cultures
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Manning cross cultures 1
Contents
Cultural Dimensions...................................................................................................................2
References................................................................................................................................10
Appendix: Literature matrix.....................................................................................................12

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Cultural Dimensions
Culture is depicted to impact consumer behaviour in various industries, as difference in
culture across the nations reflect the business directly at the individual level or may reflect
the relation among customer satisfaction and national culture. There have been various
studies conducted considering culture as the aspect to research (Van Kerkhoff & Pibean,
2017). The purpose of this literature reflects studying the cultural dimensions which reflect
frameworks or dimensions that are useful for understanding the cross cultural differences
among the nations. There are various theories that explain considering cross cultural
dimensions, among which one of the popular cultural dimension theory is Hofstede’s cultural
dimension theory which reflect a framework explaining the society culture and its effect on
members values, behaviour (Pan, 2019). The structure presented by this theory includes
power distance, individualism and collectivism, uncertainty avoidance masculinity and
femininity, long-term orientation and re-student versus indulgence. The cross cultural effect
on various industries has been identified across the globe, where one of the studied industries,
which is mostly impacted by cross cultural dimensions is tourism industry. According to
Huang, S. cross culture across the nation has been impacting tourist behaviour which reflects
difficulty in measuring the values of culture for every individual. Since tourist are majorly
from another nation, studying cultural impact and cultural dimensions become very important
for the business person and industrialist (Huang & Crotts, 2019). The literature will include
major impact of cross culture in this industry considering study of all the national cultural
dimensions and analysing the data collected for visitor’s satisfaction depicting the national
culture as one of the major determinant (Wu & Zang, 2019).
Research study by long reflect the relation between cultural dimensions as presented by
Hofstede’s theoretical framework willing to influence satisfaction that reflected tourist

Manning cross cultures 3
management study of cross country sample analysis. As per the article, tourism is reflected as
a global market place where the host visitors are from various cultures visiting and may
suffer various cultural differences. This needs to be taken into account for the marketers
which have to mean unanswered or unresolved. The literature presents the national cultural
difference which reflects the relevant to the topic for various destinations and study for
tourism demand in the global context. Developing as well as developed nations reflect
increasing wealth and increase in cross-border travel due to purchasing power increment in
the nations. Some of the research present cross cultural tourism to be earlier studied through
indirect methods that his understanding of the cultures and their influence towards tourism
management which reflect more of stereotype or generalised tourism market. The research
paper reflect answering various research questions and ability to solve society some of the
problems considering the cross culture. The research question reflected the individual’s needs
to be related with another culture that is towards radical way or with equality or as per the
merit or individual achievements. Other than this the research question also reflects the
principal motivation to be studied towards the behaviour that may depict to achieve, growth
or one’s individuality to express. The research questions reflects the answer to the cross
cultural problems identified in the literature and ability to overcome the gap between the
literature and the problem-solving.
As per the literature, one of the determinants for visitor’s satisfaction and tourism industry
reflected through cultural distance. Cultural distance is one of the aspects that are reflected
from national culture which is helpful in analysing and identifying the gap among visitor’s
nation of visit that is the host nation and the resident’s nation. The study reflected use of
Hong Kong as the host nation and the sample also reflected for Australian Culture as part of
the resident’s nation. The literature has provided visitor identification, repetition of the
visitors considering average overall satisfaction from low cultural distance nations while

Manning cross cultures 4
exploring Hong Kong as independent travellers. It can be said but the study has reflected
enough insights considering the relation among visitor’s satisfaction and cultural distance,
and types of visitors along with the mode of travel considering mix of cultural distance. The
relationship has also been assist among trip satisfaction and cultural distance with the use of
aggregated data, which could reflect the critique to the literature as this may limit the
evidence while offering the result. Other than this, the Literature that has been identified
considering the various attempt by the researchers to assist the influence of cultural distance
towards the satisfaction of tourist or visitors, the findings has reflected inclusive at the best.
However, one of the critical issues that have been considered from the research included
calculation of cultural distance considering it as a relative concept that will majorly be
dependent on host nation or the destination for the visitors (Lo & Waters, 2017).
Considering different host destinations the national score for cultural distance will be
different in value. Considering the reasoning for the literature the relative measurement of
cultural distance score reflects nature in calculation while comparing a tourist source with the
destination country’s culture that will reflect the analysis of cultural distance impact on
visitor’s satisfaction. Understanding the conceptualisation, the literature reflect in case direct
relation has been identified for impact of cultural distance to what’s the satisfaction of the
tourist reflect explanation of link between visitors satisfaction and national culture (Ismail Al‐
Alawi et al., 2007).
Other than Hofstede’s another cultural dimension model which is quite similar to this theory
is Globe project which reflect cultural framework while providing additional lens for
managers in order to understand international environment and perform well. This project
was developed in 1990s which reflect understanding of cultural dimension with recent
attempt. The data was collected on 17,000 managers, which reflect the collection of primary
data from across 62 nations. This framework is similar do Hofstede’s cultural dimension

Manning cross cultures 5
which reflect similar dimensions. For instance the dimensions are power distance, uncertainty
avoidance, gender egalitarianism, which is similar to femininity, future orientation which is
similar to long-term orientation, assertiveness orientation which is similar to masculinity,
societal collectivism which is similar to collective wisdom or individuals, and institutional.
Other than this the two dimensions which are found to be exclusive for global projects are
Humane orientation and performance orientation (Demeter et al., 2011).
Similar to that of Hofstede’s dimension, cluster of countries are considered that are with
similar characteristics when it comes to culture of the nation. This is helpful for the business
on international manager to simplify the task and convenient option to understand cultural
information for large group of nations. The literature reflects that different clusters of Nations
reflects use of different leadership forms which will be helpful for the business and the
managers to consider type of leadership while working with cross cultural individuals. This
theory reflects key aspects to be considered along with the leadership style to be opted by the
managers while working with a particular nation or cross cultural individuals. However the
critique reflects that every individual is different and working with cross country team may
not only reflect similar cultural behaviour, for the groups within a one nation but also reflect
the change in human behaviour when it comes to cross cultural teams.
Research methodology reflects the research method that the scholar used to identify what is
the relation among visitor’s satisfaction and cultural dimensions as per the Huang study. The
researcher uses measurement of cultural dimensions course along with the primary research
to be conducted through international visitors’ service database where the data was collected
through a survey completed by 39,959 participants. The positive aspect of the research
methodology considered by the scholar reflected ethical considerations which reflected use of
only 15,997 respondents’ study which were considered as appropriate primary data to be used
for data analysis. Considering the research method there are various research approaches

Manning cross cultures 6
which could use to solve different aspects of the research. For instance this research
methodology reflects the use of primary data considering international visitors survey as
discussed previously.
Qualitative as well as quantitative research approach has been used for the study in order to
understand the facts and figures along with the human behaviour and satisfaction of the
visitors considering the tourism industry when it comes to cultural differences. Other than
this the data collected for primary method is considered to be collected through interviews
which is one of the method of primary data collection which reflect empirical study approach
of this research, which reflect strengthening of the data collection and reliability of the data as
the depth information by the visitors will reflect advance qualitative research. Various cities
like Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane have been considered for collecting the data or sample.
Other than this the host nation is also being considered for the data set that is Hong Kong.
However one of the drawback or critique through research method for the use of interview as
the mode of data collection in primary research may reflect lack of interest by the
respondents due to more subjective information to be provided. Through use of survey large
sample would be collected by the researcher and the response would also be higher than that
of in case of interview. Other than this this method was also considered to be time consuming
as the interview reflects spending time with the respondent. Moreover considering the
quantitative research approach the results are more accurate and due to inclusion of figures
and calculative formulas, the cultural distance could easily be measured and compared to that
of another nation cultural dimension. On the contrary the alternative approach reflect the
analysis of cultural difference among 28 nations which are reflected as statistical errors that
this type and statistical errors in order to understand the interval data from all the nationalities
and cross culture considering six Hofstede’s dimensions (Wuthisatian & Thanetsunthron,
2018).

Manning cross cultures 7
Considering the impact of cultural dimension on business, it can be said that with the
changing time globalisation has increased and most of the companies are working with
various nations which reflect cross cultural aspects within the organisation. This has also
reflected the change in managerial behaviour and approachable managerial behaviour when
working with cross-cultural teams and other cultures in international market. There is
searches have been made which reflect the cultural difference and their impact on the
business. For instance, one of the industries has been studied through the literature
previously, this is tourism industry. The study has reflected six dimensions of Hofstede’s
cultural dimension model which reflect the association with cultural differences in nations
and impact on business. For instance first dimension, which is power distance index reflects
the degree to which the members of the society acknowledges the distribution of unequal
power. This reflects the approaches by marketing manager of business to consider while
considering the target consumer. For instance, in case the strong radical order has been
considered with high power distance index, it reflects that the power of taking decision in the
family are still in the hands of elders, which reflect targeting consumer segmentation
accordingly (Lo & Waters, 2017). Similarly the second dimension reflect individual as versus
collectivism which reflects the preference of the individuals in the nation or in a particular
culture to consider themselves as the priority or expected to take care of others. This reflects
use of I and we in the marketing approaches of the company which may impact the sale of the
product overseas. The third dimension that is masculinity versus femininity reflects
preference of the society while representing the human behaviour in a particular culture for
heroism, achievement, material rewards and assertiveness in case of higher masculinity
dimension. This reflects business culture to be considered with tough versus tender, which is
not only considered within the business organisation to consider cross-cultural teams but to
also consider the national culture while considering packaging, marketing messages and

Manning cross cultures 8
approaches of marketing in order to reach out to the target consumer. Impact of the fourth
dimension that is uncertainty avoidance index reflects the degree of cultural members to feel
uncomfortable considering the ambiguity or uncertainty. This reflects use of change
management at a slower change or also reflects the orthodox or an orthodox behaviour of
people as per the national culture. The impact of this culture for business while working
overseas that is to manage the Organisational culture for the managers in host nation
considering maintaining rigid behaviour, beliefs and rigid “when it comes to strong
uncertainty avoidance index. Considering another dimension that is long-term orientation it
can be said that it’s reflect maintaining link with the present and future challenges. For
instance the culture that is score lower for this time mention may prefer maintaining the
traditional norms and honours, which is majorly impacted through the business activities of
the organisation in such a nation, considering operations management and marketing
management as per the tradition. This reflects use of localisation approach for the marketers
while offering those products and services and marketing of goods and services overseas
(Kang et al., 2015).
Considering the future scope of this research topic, reflect management of cultural distant and
various cultural dimensions. This may reflect understanding of diversity management and
cross-cultural studies to be used in leadership while conducting business overseas. This
research will not be limited to the organisation approach but also would be considered for
consumer behaviour and employee’s behaviour considering cross cultural analysis and
cultural dimensions considering determinant for national culture (Huettinger, 2008).
From the literature, it can be concluded that There are various theories explain considering
cross cultural dimensions, among which one of the popular cultural dimension theory is
Hofstede’s cultural dimension. The cross cultural effect on various industries has been
identified across the globe, where one of the studied industries, which is mostly impacted by

Manning cross cultures 9
cross cultural dimensions is tourism industry. The research question reflects the principal
motivation to be studied towards the behaviour that may depict to achieve, growth or one’s
individuality to express. Qualitative as well as quantitative research approach has been used
for the study in order to understand the facts and figures along with the human behaviour and
satisfaction of the visitors considering the tourism industry when it comes to cultural
differences. The research question also reflects the principal motivation to be studied towards
the behaviour that may depict to achieve, growth or one’s individuality to express.
Considering the influence of cultural dimension on commerce, it can be said that with the
changing times globalisation has augmented and most of the businesses are working with
various nations which reflect cross cultural aspects surrounded by the organisation.

Manning cross cultures 10
References
Demeter, K., Boer, H., Vecchir, A. & Brennan, L., 2011. Quality management: a cross‐
cultural perspective based on the GLOBE framework. International Journal of Operations &
Production Management, 30(5), pp.527-53.
Huang, S.S. & Crotts, J., 2019. Relationships between Hofstede's cultural dimensions and
tourist satisfaction: A cross-country cross-sample examination. Tourism management, 72,
pp.232-41.
Huettinger, M., 2008. Cultural dimensions in business life: Hofstede's indices for Latvia and
Lithuania. Baltic Journal of Management, 3(3), pp.359-73.
Ismail Al‐Alawi, A., Yousif Al‐Marzooqi, N. & Fraidoon, Y., 2007. Organizational culture
and knowledge sharing: critical success factors. Journal of Knowledge Management, 11(2),
pp.22-42.
Kang, S., Hur, W. & Kim, M., 2015. The moderating role of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions
in the customer-brand relationship in China and India. Cross Cultural Management: An
International Journal, 22(3), pp.487-508.
Lo, K. & Waters, R., 2017. Assessing the applicability of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions for
Global 500 corporations’ Facebook profiles and content. Journal of Communication
Management, 21(1), pp.51-67.
Pan, S., 2019. Tourism slogans–Towards a conceptual framework. Tourism Management,
72(1), pp.180-91.
Van Kerkhoff, L. & Pibean, V., 2017. Understanding socio-cultural dimensions of
environmental decision-making: A knowledge governance approach. Environmental Science

Manning cross cultures 11
& Policy, 73, pp.29-37.
Wuthisatian, R. & Thanetsunthron, N., 2018. Cultural configuration models: corporate social
responsibility and national culture. Management Research Review, 41(10), pp.1137-75.
Wu, T. & Zang, Y., 2019. The impacts of cultural values on bilateral international tourist
flows: A panel data gravity model. Current Issues in Tourism, 22(8), pp.967-81.