SPEO01-3 Muscle Quality Dissertation

This dissertation investigates muscle quality in the rectus femoris muscle of university rugby and football players. It aims to define muscle quality components and compare muscle quality levels between the two groups. The study used ultrasound to assess rectus femoris cross-sectional area and a seated leg extension test to measure peak force. Results showed a significant difference in muscle quality between rugby and football players, particularly in the non-dominant leg and overall highest muscle quality values. Rugby players exhibited significantly higher muscle quality and peak force in the non-dominant leg. However, no significant differences were found in the dominant leg's cross-sectional area or muscle quality. The study highlights the limited research on muscle quality in young adults and suggests the need for a sport-specific muscle quality index. Limitations included potential inconsistencies in ultrasound image analysis and variations in participant posture during the force production test. Future research should explore limb dominance in sports performance and develop a more sport-specific muscle quality index.

‘Muscle Quality: The analysis of muscle
quality in the Rectus Femoris of university
Rugby and Football players’
Dissertation SPEO01-3
Reinaldo Camuimba – 1115230
[e-mail]
Sport Science and Coaching
‘I declare that this is my own work and should this declaration be found to be untrue I
acknowledge that I may be guilty of committing an academic offence’
Laura Charalambous
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Purpose of study: To identifying the components of muscle quality and identify
which of the groups compared out of the University of Bedfordshire rugby and
footballers tested which one have a higher level of muscle quality.
Introduction: Superior muscle mass commonly develops higher muscle strength.
Whereas, higher muscle mass is perceived on whether it may develop a better muscle
Quality (Barbat-Artigas et. al. 2013). The use of ultrasound was seen as the
appropriate method to examine ordinary and pathological muscle tissue, as its images
produced are non-interference to the actual muscle and the images are simultaneous
(Pillen, 2011).
Methods: 10 participants from each sports were selected from a group of university
Rugby and Football players to participate in a peak force test of a seated leg extension
test, then using a Vivid Ultrasound to assess the Cross-Sectional area of the rectus-
femoris using t a water-based gel at a gentle stable pace in order to generate a good
clear image on the ultrasound. Thus the equation to identify muscle quality in
individuals would be to identify the cross-sectional area of the muscle and x it by the
force produced by the selected muscle.
Results: Results presented in this study show that there was a significant difference in
muscle quality production in rugby players and football players. (P>0.05.) P = 0.006
using an independent sample T-test; (t= 1.072), df 18. Results also identified that
there was a significant difference between the values of muscle quality calculation on
non-dominant leg of rugby and football players (P<0.05.) P = 0.000 using an
independent sample T-test; (t= -.029), df =18. The results also identified that there
was a significant difference in the values of peak force generated in non-dominant leg
between rugby and football players. (P<0.05.) P = 0.005 using an independent
sample T-test; (t= 0.125), df 18.
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lack of literacy and communal groups the revolts will remain isolated to these same
groups; Thus, the point emphasised by Tarrow is that only when the issue affects
many people across town, across countries, who posses great organisational skills,
that is when the issue will become one which is widely contested. Furthermore, the
role of movement networks are also identified as integral in the outcome of the social
movement as a whole1.
Its outlined by Beach and Penderson how theories are researched. Their methods will
help in relation to my question; as it will be ascertained which circumstances convey
when group activism is more effective than individual action. Beach and Penderson
explain the use of evidence and observation as well as sometimes having to use
inference to fill in the gaps about theories we may believe to be true in real life2. It is
expressed that finding empirical evidence to support claims is extremely imperative,
as making generalisations about cases rarely works when trying to understand the
mechanisms of why and how outcomes were reached3.
Bloom’s argument is in agreement with that of Andrews, and states that the CRM
played a major part in not only causing contention, but also raising awareness of the
racial problems in American society. Bloom stresses that although Political
Opportunity Theory (POT) highlights the importance of macro structural shifts in
making established authorities vulnerable to insurgent challenges; it is too generative
and thus somewhat insufficient as the only explanation of racial insurgency4.
Theorising opportunity for groups falsely suggests that conditions for mass contention
1 Tarrow, Sidney. Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics . Second edition .
Camebridge : Cambridge University Press , 1998. pp . 49
2 Beach, D. and Pedersen, R.B. (2013) Process-tracing methods: Foundations and guidelines. United States:
University of Michigan Press.
3 Beach, D. and Pedersen, R.B. (2013) Process-tracing methods: Foundations and guidelines. United States:
University of Michigan Press.
4 Bloom, Joshua. "The Dynamics of Opportunity and Insurgent Practice: How Black Anti-colonialists
Compelled Truman to Advocate Civil Rights." American Sociological Review, 2015: 391-415.
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are either propitious or not which would further assume that in times of quiescence
insurgency is futile. Furthermore, political opportunity structures
Acknowledgements:
Firstly, I would like to thank family and friends that helped and supported me through
my University journey. I would also like to show gratitude to all the participants that
found spare time to contribute their effort in my study. I would also like to show my
upmost appreciation for the support that my dissertations tutor Laura Charalambous
provided me throughout my studies. Lastly I would like to thank a very special person
to me that supported me through my university journey through my good times and
hard times but Zainab has still been there to be my voice of reasoning and help me
continue my studies.
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Contents Preliminaries
Title Page i
Abstract ii
Acknowledgements iv
1. Chapter 1: Introduction
2. Chapter 2: Literature Review
3. Chapter 3: Method
4. Chapter 4: Results
5. Chapter 5: Discussion
6. Chapter 6: Conclusions
7. Chapter 7: References
8. Chapter 8: Appendix
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Introduction:
Superior muscle mass, may have optimistic relationship to higher muscle strength.
Conversely, higher muscle mass can be frequently linked to having a higher
proportion of muscle quality. (Barbat-Artigas et. al. 2013). Muscle quality in an
individual could be defined in three forms such as; muscle force created in the muscle
per unit of the muscle size, the relationship between the size of the muscle and the
amount of power the muscle could produce (Barbat-Artigas et. al. 2012). Muscle
Quality in the human body is assessed by the level of forced produced. Through the
development of athletes, coaches would design suitable training programs for athletes
in their sports so it would produce the form of muscle endurance and quality that
would build an athlete’s perseverance through performance and training programs
manufactured for them by the coach. Whilst an extensive quantity of consideration
has been paid to the relationship between muscle quality and muscle size through
athlete training there are very few research studies that consider the true meaning of
muscle quality in athletes, neither scientists nor athletic coaches have considered to
look at the difference in muscle size and muscle quality. Though muscle quality
analysis in humans has linked to a strong improvement in their performance. Studies
have shown that great muscle quality is force generated by the muscle divided by the
cross sectional area of the muscle (Barbat-Artigas et. al. 2013), but who’s to say that
athletes from other sports may not have great muscle quality from not having a great
cross sectional muscle area, and that the muscle may not produce a great amount of
force from the muscle? Within the structure of the human anatomy it is thought that
the greater quadriceps muscle mass may be, the stronger the muscle is. The human
muscle mass extremely associates itself to the purpose of the muscle (English et al,
2011). But not in every circumstance does this truly transpire. Customarily the actual
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muscle doesn’t actually have to be of a superior size to display an excessive quantity
of force. The theory behind this is due to quality of muscle in the individual. They
may have a sizeable smaller muscle but could also display a high amount of strength
compared to an individual with a larger muscle size.
The muscle Rectus Femoris is found in the quadriceps, the Rectus Femoris originates
at the hip - Anterior Inferior Iliac Spine, and inserts at the Quadriceps Tendon.
Connecting itself from the hip to the knee to the hip and assists with hip flexion and
extension of the knee on the extension or elevation of the knee. The Rectus Femoris
contracts alongside the whole quadriceps. Of the whole Quadriceps the main muscle
that helps on the contraction and tension of the muscle is the Rectus Femoris.
What this study aims to measure is measure the cross sectional area of the quadriceps
femoris and if the parts correlate with muscle force within the Quadriceps muscle
specifically on the Rectus Femoris muscle. Analysing the muscle through ultrasound
is an appropriate practice on picturing the standard and pathological muscle tissue.
Thus the aim of this study is to analyse what are the true definition of muscle quality
and what type of sports tends to produce a greater muscle quality in athletes. By
analysing athletes both from rugby and football, we would then distinguish which
sporting method produced a greater muscle quality in athletes.
Rationale: Initially the assumption of a larger muscle size would mean a better form
of muscle quality. This assumption was determined by assuming that if an individual
attains a larger muscle size automatically they would generate a great amount of force
from that specific muscle. this study will attempts to identify the components of
muscle quality and also attempt to identify from the two sports being compared
which one of them helps athletes have a greater muscle quality in the rectus femoris.
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Hypothesis: It is hypothesised that the university rugby players from this study will
show a significant difference in muscle quality in the Rectus Femoris in comparison
to the muscle quality in the university footballers.
Literature review:
What is muscle quality: There are three major factors that define muscle quality; this
includes muscle force generated per unit of muscle quantity, and the muscle capacity
of muscle size in relation to how much power the muscle produces on its own. Thus,
calculating the quality in muscle could have the involvement of: muscle size, muscle
force and muscle power produced (Barbat-Artigas et. al. 2012).
Muscle mass: The magnitude of muscle that makes the muscle or muscle group.
Muscle mass may differ on the form and size (Kent, 1998). There are various forms
of methods on measuring muscle mass in humans. The expense and accessibility of
the methods can regulate the most reliable method appropriate to when using for
Scientific Research or clinical practice (Barbat-Artigas et. al. 2012). Heymsfield et.
Al. 2010, listed various different methods on how to test muscle mass such as for
example ultrasound figure imaging. There are three image methods on how to
evaluate muscle mass or lean muscle mass, these methods are CT Scanning, MRI and
Dual-energy X-ray Absorbtion (DXA). From recent studies it indicates that CT
scanning and MRI are the highest standard in the analysis of muscle mass, while DXA
has an ease of access for both sports specific research and clinical practice. The use of
muscle Ultrasound scanning is another technique used to analyse muscle mass in
humans. With this method it provides evidence of penation angle in the muscle
(Barbat-Artigas et. al. 2012). Bio-impendence testing views the quantity of fat and
lean muscle mass in the body. But however, the accessibility and cost of this method
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is if ease to access the method and may be a cheap and handy practice DXA.
Additionally Janssen et al. (2002), proposed an equation for valuing skeletal muscle
mass using Bioelectric Impendence Analysis (BIA). By using anthropometric
procedures it could be one of the most simple approaches to measuring skeletal? body
muscle mass. But through the use of this method, could occur various faults and it has
vulnerabilities. A final way of examining muscle mass could be the use of urinary
creatinine excretion. Nevertheless, as irregularity of accuracy of the results still
continue to be unclear, this method of analysis isn’t recommended as conclusive
assessment of muscle mass.
Muscle strength
Muscle strength is defined as the force or the tension that a muscle or more
profoundly a muscle group may generate in contradiction of a resistance in a single
all-out exertion (Kent, 1998). Strength in the muscle can be measured through several
different muscle groups, these include, hand grip and knee flexors and extensors.
They tend to be the most popular muscle groups reviewed (Barbat-Artigas et. al.
2012). Assessing lower limbs in the body are more important to the limbs in the upper
body for movement and bodily tasks. Nevertheless, hand grip power is used
commonly used due to the ease accessibility and has upbeat reports on being a worthy
sign of general muscle strength (Rantanen et. al. 1994). There are two different
methods on how to assess muscle strength in the body; a one repetition maximum and
a dynamometry test. Using a one repetition maximum test requires an individual to
execute an all-out bout of exertion, to lift a weight on specified exercises. Using this
method can regulate individuals’ maximum strength on specific muscle groups.
Dynamometers testing require a device that permits isometric and isokinetic
assessments on muscle strength for example, concentric or eccentric force at altered
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speeds (Hortobagyi, T et al. 1995). However, as individuals age - eccentric muscle
strength can have less of an affect compared to concentric muscle strength
(Hortobagyi, T et al. 1995) and (Porter, M et al. 1995). Using handgrip strength
assessment could be an appropriate use for clinical practice whilst the use of knee
flexors and extensors strength evaluation using a 1 repetition max test or
Dynamometers however the accessibility for these sports testing methods could be
limited. Rationalization and methods used to distinguish muscle strength in most
current years is skeletal muscle strength expressed through force production aptitude
in the muscle (Barbat-Artigas et al, 2012). Certainly there may be a robust connection
amongst muscle strength and functional deficiencies which encourages gaining an
understanding of its foundations and means. Different measures on assessing muscle
strength has been identified through the study of literature with each of these
measurements having both advantages and disadvantages, primarily depending on the
aim of the research and method used to asses muscle strength Barbat-Artigas et al,
2012). The analysis of supreme muscle strength is one of the most simplistic
techniques on stating what actual muscle strength would be as it would not require
various testing techniques. However, analysis of muscle strength is more relevant for
the use of understanding muscle function and injuries. Muscle strength primarily
depends on different variables that incorporate bodyweight, Body Mass Index (BMI),
muscle mass, acceleration and amplitude (Reed et al, 1991; Mitsionis et al, 2009).
Therefore the amendment of muscle strength around these variables may be of
relevance. Correspondingly to research conducted by Ploutzsnyder et al, (2002) they
theorized that amending muscle strength to body weight could be of importance when
regulating physical function threshold. Equally studies by Lynch et al, (1999), Tracy
et al, (1999) and Metter et al, (1999), all attempted on monitoring muscle strength on
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muscle mass which giving the categorization of muscle quality. Undeniably, stating
that muscle strength per unit of muscle mass could specify the influence it may have
to muscle quality (Barbat-Artigas et al, 2012).
Muscle power: another potential definition of muscle quality:
Definition: muscle power is observed as the capacity to execute muscle work per
unit. Maximal power is limited by the boundaries of force-velocity relation: maximal
isometric strength (or force; Fmax) and maximal velocity of contraction (Vmax)
(Power = Work/Time = Force*Distance/Time = Force*Speed) (Barbat-Artigas et al,
2012).
The ability to produce peak power is indomitable to the depth of muscle contraction
and the specific point in which it produces force, storage and depletion of elastic
energy, relations between contractile and elastics fundamentals (Cormie et al, 2011).
Additionally, maximal power production is induced through morphological elements
that are in incorporation with muscle fibre types that supply muscle structure, tendon
factors containing motor unit recruitment. Additionally, diverse modifications to
muscle atmosphere for example adjustments from fatigue alteration in muscle
temperature (Cormie et al, 2011). Considering this model form of corporation is
necessary on developing of muscle power, thus assessing muscle power may also
provide a respectable valuation of muscle quality. (Barbat-Artigas et al, 2012).
Remarkably Thom et al, 2007 stated that 10% of the adaptation on muscle power
could give an clarification as to why a reduction on muscle mass occurred in the body.
Thus, since the organization of muscle power results in a universal categorization of
neuromuscular factors which manipulates both muscle contraction rate and capacity
level of force produced in the muscle, with a lack of dissimilarity in the explanation of
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muscle mass and a decline in muscle power may be the cause of degeneration of
muscle quality (Barbat-Artigas et al, 2012).
Muscle power/Cross-sectional area (CSA):
As the same equation is used while assessing muscle strength, various studies all used
muscle power divided by the Cross-sectional area of the muscle (Haus, et al, 2007;
Toji et al, 2007; Thom et al, 2007). By dividing muscle power per unit by muscle
mass they could show a more complex calculation, however having a further
comprehensive guide of muscle quality as to dividing muscle strength per unit by
muscle size subsequently is also takes into account that a restriction on muscle
velocity.
Evaluation on Rectus Femoris analysis:
The most recent research that report on the operation of the quadriceps femoris
muscle throughout exercise has been done by Pocock, (1963) what he aimed on
investigating was chronological stage on when the three superficial muscles in the
quadriceps femoris mechanism during a number of different exercises that involved
the quadriceps femoris. Whereas, the adaptability of the appliance delivered resistive
loads, Electromyography (EMG) was measured using an effective knee extension
exercise. A research directed by Soderberg and Cook (1983), assessed quadriceps
scaling and straight leg raising test. The similarity of these two methods both had
produced respective measurements however; the validity of the testing was unreliable
due to the time scaling of the methods, thus in a lack of conclusion from the study was
reached. It was decided not to include using maximal exertion straight leg raise in
their assessment procedure, but it is not acknowledged that throughout the straight leg
raise test the contraction of the rectus femoris did not show a major influence on
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