Potential and Limitations of NbS in Chakaria, Bangladesh: A Report

This report examines the potential and limitations of Nature-based Solutions (NbS) in minimizing environmental degradation within the Chakaria Sub-district of Bangladesh's south-eastern coastal region. The study addresses the significant environmental challenges faced by the area, including the degradation of mangrove forests and loss of ecosystem services, exacerbated by human activities and natural hazards. It explores the effectiveness of NbS, integrated with existing policies, as a sustainable approach to mitigate these impacts, focusing on the restoration of biodiversity and ecosystem services. The research highlights the need for effective policy implementation and identifies challenges in applying NbS, aiming to contribute to the development of improved environmental conservation strategies. The report also provides a detailed literature review, methodology, and a plan for executing the project including the challenges and possible solutions that can be incorporated.

Exploring the Potential and Limitations of Nature Based Solutions in Minimizing as a
Sustainable Approach to Reversing Environmental Degradation and Restoring Ecosystem
Services: A Case ofin Chakaria Sub-Ddistrict, South-Eastern Coastal Region of
Bangladesh

List of Acronyms:
ADB: Asian Development Bank
BCCSAP: Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan
CCA: Climate Change Adaptation
DDM: Department of Disaster Management
DMC: Disaster Management Committee
DoE: Department of Environment
DRR: Disaster Risk Reduction
EbA: Ecosystem-based Adaptation
ED: Environmental Degradation
Eco-DRR: Ecosystem-based Disaster Risk Reduction
EbM: Ecosystem-based Management
EIA: Environmental Impact Assessment
ES: Ecosystem Services
ESV: Ecosystem Service Valuation
FAO: Food and Agricultural Organisation
FGD: Focus Group Discussion
GIS: Geographic Information System
IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
KII: Key Informant Interview
LGED: Local Government Engineering Department
MEA: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
MoA: Ministry of Agriculture
MoEF: Ministry of Forest and Environment
MoDMR: Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief
MoWR: Ministries of Water Resource
NbS: Nature-based Solutions
SDGs: Sustainable Development Goals
SLR: Sea Level Rise
TEK: Traditional Ecological Knowledge
UNISRD: United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
WB: World Bank
WEF: World Economic Forum

ABSTRACT
Damages to coastal ecosystems, especially mangrove forest has serous economic implications,
resulting in the loss of $ 42 billion each year. ED is a major challenge faced by the world at large
and in locales, including the study area of Chakaria Sub-district in the South-Eastern Coastal
region of Bangladesh. The area has experienced massive Environmental Degradation due to over
exploitation of the natural coastal ecosystems (mangrove, coral, sea grass, and aquatic resources),
resulting in significant losses in ES (mangrove, coral, sea grass, and aquatic resources) and
increased exposure to natural hazards such as cyclones and high ocean tides. Despite several
policies and laws enacted by Bangladesh, not much has been achieved in terms of environmental
conservation or reversing ED and restoring ES, largely due to the wrong overall approach in
because the present science based policies implementation have not achieved their desired
objectives as witnessed by the continued environmental degradation of the Chakaria Sub-District
Costal Ecosystem and loss of Ecosystem Services. This proposed study aims at showing that NbS
is the best approach exploring the possibility of nature Based Solutions, integrated with existisng
environmental protection policies as being a promising solution to minimizing the imapcts of
environmental degradation to tackling the problem of ED and its resultant outcomes such as
climate change, loss of Ecosystem Services, biodiversity loss, and and greater exposure to natural
phenomena such as cyclones and hurricaneshazards. The proposed research seeks to understand
the reasons for the continued ED of the Chakaria Sub-district ecosystem, including mangrove and
aquatic resources despite the presence of very good laws and policies to protect the environment.
The proposed research also seeks to gain deeper insights on the challenges of implementing the
policies and further reinforce the novelty of NbS as a possible solution that is broad based,
sustainable, and can incorporate other interventions including artificial infrastructure and some of
the effective laws and policies that have been tried and proven, with the community highly
involved in its implementation. The proposal believes ES can best be restored and maintained
using NbS. Using an exploratory research design and a survey involving experts and players
already involved in environmental conservation efforts, this proposed research will demonstrate
the validitypotential of using NbS to arrestminimize the impacts of continued ED in the study
area and ensure sustainable ES and biodiversity restoration and show that it is the best answer to
the research objective and questions.

1. Introduction
This section introduces the research topic and provides a background of the study topic and the
study area.
The cost of environmental degradation continues to rise; the destruction of mangrove forests,
which is a carbon rich ecosyste, costs $ 42 billion every year and the effects can be devastating
given that 90% of the world mangroves are found in least developed nations (United Nations
Environment Programme, 2014). The past centuries have seen immense and continued
degradation of our environment due to expanding populations, natural resource extraction, and
human activities, the mains ones being such as increased industrialization, human population
growth, over extraction of natural resources, and agricultural activites (Barbier, 2013). The
resulted impact is apparent in almost every part of our beloved planet that has not been left
untouched by human activity. The main cause of environmental degradation still remains human
activities and this began with the 17th century industrial revolution that began in Europe and
spread to other parts of the globe, in which the manufacture of goods and production was
mechanized (Landes, 1969).(Goudie, 2019). These activities used machines and equipment that in
turn utilized fossil energy to power them, adversely affecting the environment (Choudhary, et al.,
2015). The rate of population growth was exponential and increased human pressure to exploit
natural resources for commercial and sustenance activities has led to Environmental Degradation
(ED) (Day, et al., 2018). ED refers to the exhaustion of natural resources of the world that include
soil, water, air, and land because of human disturbances to nature (El-Haggar, 2007)(Willow,
2014). These include irresponsible waste disposal, over cultivation, human activities such as
construction in fragile ecosystems, pollution from fossil fuels, plastic, and chemical
contamination (El-Haggar, 2007)(Willow, 2014). Fragile ecosystems such as coastal regions face
increased human activity because of the benefits derived from their ecological services and
commercial potential such as for tourism, real estate development, fishing activities, and as a
source of water and sea/ ocean/ lake products (Watson, et al., 2018). The exploitation of coastal
habitats and resources is a direct function of the human socio-economic development and
population (Goudie, 2013). Nearly 40% of the world’s population live along coastal regions, and
with accelerated population growth means increased use of natural resources, and this contributed
significantly to the degradation of coastal environments (Surjan, et al., 2016).
The damages to the environment caused by human activity are significant, with the financial
impact being $ 10.6 trillion annually due to land degradation (Odera & Noel, 2015). There was
significant disasters that are anthropogenic- these range from oil spills to nuclear test fallouts and
accidents, some of which have been world changing (LaSane, 2019). Examples include the dust

bowl, the Chernobyl nuclear disaster, early nuclear tests by the US, Exxon Valdez oil spillage, the
Deep Water Horizon oil spillage, Flint Water Crisis, Great Smog of London, and the Cynanide
gas leak of Union Carbide, among others (LaSane, 2019). However, most environmental
degradation (ED) due to human activity remain subtle, but even more devastating because they
occur gradually over a longer time period, for instance, increased over exploitation of marine
resources (Azam, 2016). Massive losses in biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (ES)
deterioration has been experienced within the world over time due to deforestation from
competitive resource exploitation and the resultant ED took place (Ciccarese, et al., 2012). South
East Asia has experienced the highest deforestation levels compared to all other tropical regions
in the last thirty years alone (Miettinen, et al., 2011). This region is a massive carbon sink and has
a very rich biodiversity such that deforestation has severe consequences on a global scale
(Miettinen, et al., 2011). In South East AisaAsia, the rate of loss of the critical mangrove forest
from 2000s to early 2010s was 0.18% annually. The main drivers of this mangrove ecosystem
loss in this region was rice cultivation and aquaculture such as shrimp farming (Richards &
Friess, 2015).
A complex mix of mosaic landscapes, human population pressure, small holder agriculture,
poorly implemented policies, and exploitation of forests are at the center of forest destruction and
mangrove ecosystem degradation in the South and South East of Asia (Mertz, et al., 2012).
Bangladesh, a lush nation with several water ways in the South of Asia, has not been spared the
global phenomena of accelerating ED and faces serious problems with its environment, including
land degradation, water shortages, air pollution, contamination of water and land resources, and
loss of biodiversity (Giasuddin, 2019). The coastal regions are of particular concern due to ED in
Bangladesh (and India) have some of the largest mangrove resources in the world located at the
western to south eastern coast, at Chakaria which have experienced accelerated destruction of
Mangrove forest Sundarbans and the surrounding waters due to increased fishing activities
(shrimp farming activities), Salt cultivation, human settlements, and wood harvesting (Mitra &
Sharma, 2010). The destruction of this vital natural resource has exposed the area to increased
erosion, decreased protection from cyclones, tidal waves, and flooding (Deb and Ferreira, 2017) .
The regional water systems have also been altered with fragile coastal habitats being damaged as
a result, leading to disturbances in climate stability and balance in coastal Ecosystem Services
(ES) (Gonsalves & Mohan, 2011). Corals have not been spared either due to destructive fishing,
sedimentation, mining, tourism, mining, trade in coral and the effects of global warming
(Subramanian, 2012).

This proposal aims at addressing and proposing practical ES-Based Sustainable interventions to
stem and reverse the ED of the Chakaria sub-district, located in the South Eastern Coastal region
of Bangladesh. This proposal seeks to explore the potential of Nature based Solutions in limiting
limiting the impacts of Environmental Degradation in the study area, and if it can help restore
some Ecosystem Services. This proposed research will also explore the potential of using Nature
based Solutions together with other approaches such as effective policy implementation in
limiting the impacts of Environmnetal Degradation as well as its (nature based Solutions)
limitations. After this brief introduction to provide a background of the problem, the proposal
states the specific research problem, as well as define the aims and objectives of the study, as well
as a guiding research question. This is followed by a detailed review of literature and a
description of the methodology to be used for the research as well as how the findings will be
analyzed. A plan for executing the project is then discussed and conclusions drawn.
Therefore, in this research, different solution that can assist in developing the appropriate
practices that can be adopted in order to improve the current problem will be identified and
discussed. The variety of strategies that have been suggested will be analysed and already
ongoing projects that have the people and community of Bangladesh are undertaking will be
highlighted in the research. There are many strategies like Coastal Embankment Projects,
mangrove protection committees etc. that are trying to act a as a barrier towards further
exploitation of the natural ecosystem that Bangladesh was granted and are doing a significant
work in order to improve the already depleted ecological system of Bangladesh (Jabed, et al.,
2018). However, the effect of such projects is not giving quick results and the loopholes are
continuously being developed for every law or strategy that is being implemented toward
environment protection (Rinkesh, 2019) (Sohel & Ullah, 2012). Therefore, it is now imperative to
conduct a proper research that will help in identifying and comparing all the strategies that can be
adopted for the preservation of the environment and ensuring to reduce further depletion. The
analysis of all the possible strategies would lead in identification of one most appropriate
strategies and decision can be then made accordingly (Sohel & Ullah, 2012). The the appropriate
strategies that will be identified after this through analysis of all the possible strategies would
then be evaluated in terms of what are the probable challenges or problems that can arise in the
implementation of these strategies and then the solution that can be used to bridge up the possible
problems would be then detailed in the research.
1.1 Statement of the Problem
At present, the human population and nearly all life forms are living in an unsustainable manner
that is totally unsustainable due to the current global environmental crisis being witnessed in

many parts of the world (Singh and Singh, 2016). The main cause of the crisis is human
activities associated with the over consumption/ exploitation of natural resources that include
water, air, soil; wildlife eradication, and the destructiondisruption of various environments and
the resultant disturbances within ecosystems (Piguet, 2010). These combined effects result in
environmental degradation- the disintegration and deterioration of the environment, characterized
by an undesirable aggravation or change in the nature’s turf (Singh and Singh, 2016). An
expanding human population that is constantly engaged in ever increasing monetary pursuits by
exhausting natural assets using technologies that pollute fragile ecosystems and environments
causes these environments’ resources to be depleteIncreasing commercial natural resource
exploration and extraction through mining, commercial agriculture, real estate development and
human settlements have resulted in various forms of damages to the environment and disruption
of ecosystems. These damages and disruptions include natural flora and fauns destruction,
ecological disturbances, land, air, and water pollution, desertification, landscape degradation,
rock and soil masses instability, and global warming (Dafermos, Nikolaidi and Galanis, 2017)d
(Downey, Bonds & Clark, 2010). This depletion occurs in the form of species extinction,
pollution of air, water, and soils, rapid population growth, and adverse interactions with natural
environments and ecosystems such as over fishing, deforestation, over extraction of natural
resources, and disturbance to delicate balances within clearing ecosystems for human
infrastructure development (Ahuti, 2015).
Increased demand for natural resources and fossil fuels, extensive agricultural activities,
aquaculture, rubber and palm oil plantations, illegal wildlife trade, and over-exploitation of
forests has been causing unprecedented biodiversity loss and ED on a global scale (Valencia,
2020). Environmental degradation (ED) is among the most existential threats to life on the planet
and is being given high level priority among global stakeholders. The UN International Strategy
for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) views ED as reducing the earth’s limit to meet environmental
and social destinations, and needs (Kasperson, Kasperson, Turner II, Hsieh & Schiller, 2005)
(Shakeela and Becken, 2014). The main drivers of ED are human activities including population
explosion, transportation, industrialization, urbanization, and other anthropogenic activities,
although non anthropogenic activities are also causes of ED (Piguet, 2010). ED has in turn
created several global scale problems that include climate change and global warming and
associated climat change; among the most important challenges the world faces today. The
effects of ED are many, the significant ones being the depletion of the ozone layer, loss of
biodiversity, adverse effects on human health, loss of ecological services (ES), economic impacts
(negative) including increased poverty, and greater exposure to natural disasters (Warner,
Hamza, Oliver-Smith, Renaud & Julca, 2009).

As the introduction and background literatures show, Bangladesh faces immense problems with
her environment, and the Chakaria sub-district is the focal point of this research proposal. The
Chakaria Sundarbans used to be a mosaic consisting of river channels, newly formed grass
islands, aquaculture ponds, tidal creeks, internal mud flats, and mangrove forests (Abdul, 2014).
However, human activities, mainly shrimp culture, salt cultivation, and mangrove forest clearing
Kasper has led to the severetotal destructiondisturbances to of this ecosystem, with adverse
consequences including erosion, loss of species, pollution, sedimentation, and reduced protection
from flooding, tidal waves, and cyclones (Abdul, 2014). Other outcomes include sea level rise,
climate change, fire outbreaks, disease outbreaks, and water sources degradation (Islam &
Bhuiyan, 2018). Recovering this critical ecosystem has proven difficult, given that despite laws
enhanced for its protection, implementation is still very low, with ignorance, poverty, lack of
alternative economic activities, and over exploitation being the major drivers of ED and
ecosystem disturbances causes. Most people survive on agriculture, extraction of timber, salt, rice
cultivation, and aquaculture, activities that have sped up the dwindling of this once vibrant
ecosystem (Ishtiaque and Chhetri, 2016).
Past efforts aimed at minimizing the effects of t arresting ED in the study area have largely failed
despite Bangladesh having robust laws to conserve and protect the environment, including those
aimed at controlling Ecosystem services use largely due to S use. The main reason is high non-
compliance levels (Islam et al., 2017). The top down approach with a myriad laws havehas failed
to stem the massive ED experienced in Bangladesh; the country has over 200 laws aimed at
addressing environmental concerns, including ED ((Sharma and Singh, 2017)Manzoor Rashid et
al., 2013; Haque, 2012). The consequence is ongoing Environmental Degradation (ED) that has
led to loss or severe disturbance to the Ecosystem Services (ES) and increasing impact of climate
change induced disasters due to loss of natural buffers against such disasters (Sharma and Singh,
2017). Lack of effective implementationintegration between science and policy in sustainably
managing the environment of laws as well as insufficient involvement of local communities has
resulted in unsustainable exploitation of coastal natural resources in Bangladesh (Belal, Cooper
and Khan, 2015). ES refer to all things and benefits derived from nature that contribute to the
well-being of people and societies. Few people have the training to understand these services and
understand the importance of sustainable use. Further, fewer people understand how they (ES)
can be integrated into decision making processes such as when landscape planning or economic
development should be undertaken (Bennett et al., 2015).
Although the various laws and policy instruments should be effective, they have achieved the
opposite outcome because of having multiple loopholes and a lack of greater community

involvmenetinvolvement in their implementationintegration between science and policy in
sustainably managing the environment, it has been impossible for the intended conservation
objectives to be achieved (Ishtiaque & Chhetri, 2016). The result has been massive loss of the
mangrove that act as a natural barrier during coastal disasters like Storm surge, coastal flooding
and erosion, cyclone; within the Chakaria sub-district mangrove forest declining by 87.5%
between 1972 and 2017, while 21% of the former forest is being utilized for salt mining, 45% for
shrimp farming and only 26% remains as a water body (Prince, et al., 2018). Other reasons why
conservation laws and restoration efforts have largely failed despite laws and acts is due to lack
of political will and weak social will of both the political leadership and the local people (Afroz
& Alam, 2013).
The destruction of this ecosystem has been immense and while there is potential for the area to be
saved and restored, new approaches are needed to address this (Rahman & Mahmud, 2018). In
summary, the main problem that this proposed research seeks to solve is ineffective policies and
laws regarding the conservation and restoration of the fragile Chakaria Sub-district ecosystem .
Some of the major reasons for this failure is lack of understanding on how science can be
integrated into environmental conservation policies and due to weak social support and political
will of both leaders and the people. This has led to severe impacts of natural phenomena due to
continued environmental degradation of the area, and this can be reversed through updated ES-
based sustainable intervention that comprise NbS, coastal ocean infrastructure, and conservation
policies that willcan ensure continued ES while provide locals economic benefits to any
vulnerable tropical coastal regions, provide a natural shield against natural weather extremes such
as cyclones and high waves, while simultaneously benefiting the biodiversity of thestudy area.
The proposed research will ascertain the extent of ED in Chakaria Sub-district of
bangladeshBangladesh through exteniveextensive review of literature and a survey, and
demonstrate that existing approach of a myriad policies and laws premised on laws and
regulations remain ineffective and this status quo will not changethe ED of te study area will
continue. This research seeks to exploe the possibility os using Nature Based Solutions and
integrate them with existing environmental management policies of Bangladesh in minimizing
Environmental Degradation impacts in the study area, as well as detrmining its limitations.
1.2 Research Aim:
To establish the main reasons why the existing policies and laws for protecting the environment
have not yielded the desired outcomes in general, and specifically in the study area and to
understand the possibility (and limitations) of Nature based Solutions as a means of limiting
Environmental Degradation when integrated with environmental management policies and

whether this can help restore ecosystem servicesThe proposed research aims at proving that an
ES-based sustainable intervention that incorporates Nature-based Solution (NbS) Intervention and
implemented alone or integrate with existing coastal infrastructure to minimize and reverse ED in
the Chakaria Sub-district and restoration of ES. This will be achieved by undertaking primary
research involving environmental conservation practitioners in Bangladesh and after an extensive
review of literature.
Research Aim
The proposed research aims at measuringinvestigating the ES-based sustainable alternatives as an
effective one that incorporates NbS, can be implemented alone or in conjunction with existing
infrastructure to minimize and reverse ED in the study area .
If these alternatives can be integrated into existing policies for coastal protection, then it can be
implemented effectively by undertaking primary research involving relevant practitioners in
Bangladesh.
AIM (Only one-in a broad scale)
Objective 1 (how we can achieve the aim,
following SMART objective)
Objective 2
Objective 3
Objective 4
Objective 5
1.3 Objectives
 To understand the reasons why past and current strategies for reversing and conserving
the environment at Chakaria district of Bangladesh have not achieved much in the past
two decades by interviewing environmental subject matter experts (from the DDM, DoE,
DMC, BCCSAP, and LGED).
 To put forth Nature Based Solutions as an umbrella concept encompassing various
concepts that include EbA, CCA, Eco-DRR as the best sustainable approach to restoring
ES in the study area while reversing ED.

 To deduce the extent of environmental degradation in the study area over the past five
decades and why this has happened despite the presence of robust environmental
protection laws and policies.
 To establish, through a qualitative research approach, why enacted policies aimed at
conserving and protecting the environment in Bangladesh have not be successful in the
past five decades.
 To undertake a field/ geographic observation of the study area and assess and analyze the
extent of Ecosystem Damage in the study area in the last five decades.
 To explore the possibility of using Nature Based Solutions, together with other
approaches such as environmental protection policies, in limiting environmental
degradation of the study area and restoring at least 40% of the lost ecosystem in the next
decade.
Objectives
To deduce the extent of environmental degradation in the study area over the past five decades
despite the presence of robust environmental protection laws and policies through extensive
Literature Review and expert interviews.
To explore the possibility of implementing ES-based sustainable alternatives (implemented alone
or together with existing infrastructures) in limiting environmental degradation of the study area
and restoring at least 40% of the lost ecosystem in the next decades.
 To determine the strength and drawbacks of existing initiatives and policies applied for
coastal protection and ecosystem restoration over the past few decades by making
comparison with updated alternatives through Ecosystem Service Valuation;
To inquire at the challenges that will arise in the integration and implementation of nature-based
approach in the adaptation and risk reduction projects taken place from 2009 to 2016 and the way
to overcome those barriers through KII among experts and practitioners and available literatures.
Finally to develop a model for sustainable use of ES in a vulnerable coastal community that will
be feasible environmentally, economically and socially.
 Research Objectives
 To Investigate the extent of environmental degradation in the study area over the past five
decades despite the presence of robust environmental protection laws and policies
through extensive Literature Review and expert interviews.
 To determine the value of ES in the study area and quantify them using the InVEST
computer model for data capture.
 To investigate if NbS when used together with effective policies can restore 50% of the
ES and bidiversity in the study area within a decade

 To determine the strength and drawbacks of existing initiatives and policies in the
conservation and protection of coastal ecosystem and ecosystem restoration over the past
few decades by making comparison with updated alternatives through Ecosystem Service
Valuation and employing InVEST
 To inquire about the challenges that will arise in the integration and implementation of
nature-based approach in the adaptation and risk reduction projects taken place from 2009
to 2016 and the way to overcome those barriers through a survey of experts and
practitioners and available literatures, and afterwards, develop a model for sustainable
use of ES in a vulnerable coastal community that will be feasible environmentally,
economically and socially.
1.4 Research Questions
 What are the reasons why Environmental Degradation of the Chakaria Sub-District, in the
South-Eastern Coastal Region of Bangladesh, and its impacts have not been minimized
despite a myriad laws aimed at achieving this objective?
 Can the ES-based sustainable alternatives (implemented alone or together with existing
infrastructures) that integrates nature based Solutions with existing relevant laws and
policies be a more effective solution to minimizing the impacts of environmental
degradation in the study area, given the failure of conservation policies, and what are the
limitations of this approach?
1.4 Research Questions
 What are the reasons why Environmental Degradation of the Chakaria Sub-District, in the
South-Eastern Coastal Region of Bangladesh, and its impacts have not been minimized
despite a myriad laws aimed at achieving this objective?
 Can a new ‘hybrid’ approach that integrates nature based Solutions with existing
Bangladesh environmental management laws and policies be a more effective solution to
minimizing the impacts of environmental degradation in the study area, and what are the
limitations of this approach? Why have the Chakaria mangrove ecosystem continued
suffering massive ED despite the presence of laws and policies for its conservation?
 Can NbS be the answer to restoring ES and conserving the environment while reversing
ED in the study area?
1.5 Hypothesis
Sustainable interventions using Nature Based Solutions implemented alone or conjointly
with existing environmental management policies, and artificial infrastructure will minimize and

reverse the ongoing Environmental Degradation (ED) within the Chakaria sub-district coastal
ecosystem and result in enhanced conservation and restore Ecosystem Services.

Problem/Issue Purpose/Objectives Method Expected Output
1 Failure of policies to
minimize ED in
Chakaria Sub-District
Investigate reasons for
failures
Qualitative
research methods
SII, KII, focus
groups)
Reasons why
existing policies
have failed to
stop ED
2 Continued ED of the
study area ecosystem
and biodiversity
Investigate nature, causes,
and extent of ED in study
area
Qualitative (KII,
SII, InVEST,
secondary data
Determine extent
of ED of study
area
3 Loss of Ecosystem
services
Determine the ES and
extent of loss
InVEST,
secondary data
Determine value
of ES lost
4 Exposure of
communities to
destructive effects of
natural phenomena
such as cyclones
How well protected are
coastal communities
Qualitative,
secondary
The available
infrastructure to
protect from
natural weather
phenomena like
cyclones

2. Literature Review:
2.1 Key Concepts and Their Interrelationships
Environmental Degradation (ED)
ED is any disturbance or change within an environment that is perceived as being
undesirable or deleterious (Ward, et al., 2016). A combination of a large and fast increasing
human population (taken as P), continued economic growth (taken as A) and use of technologies
that cause pollution and deplete resources (taken as T) causes adverse environment impacts
(taken as I). These have been used to create the environmental impact equation (I) which is
I = PAT (Ehrlich, 2014)
The United Nations and other high level organizations consider ED as being among the ten
threats facing the globe today as it implies the capacity of the environment to meet ecological and
social needs is significantly reduced (Dalby, 2019). Examples of massive ED include the
Amazon forest wild fires, the Australian bush fires, and the Mexican Gulf oil spill (Deep Water
Horizon) (LaSane, 2019). The Amazon, for instance, constitutes 60% of the global rain forest
cover and is critical for the continued harmonious functioning of the global ecosystem, it is the
‘lungs of the world’. Its destruction through deforestation poses huge threats to the entire globe as
it reduced available total oxygen production and decreases carbon dioxide absorption (Spracklen
and Garcia-Carreras, 2015). ED adversely affects ES as fragile ecosystems are disturbed and
bidiversity is lost.
Ecosystem Services (ES)
ES are the supports and benefit that communities received from ecosystem (UNISDR,
2009) and include the varied benefits that the natural environment confers to the human
population due to the presence of healthy and undisturbed ecosystems. The ecosystems in this
context include forest ecosystems, agricultural ecosystems, aquatic ecosystems, and grassland
ecosystems. When these ecosystems operate with a healthy relationship, they confer several
benefits crucial for the continued survival of life, such as crop pollination that results in food
security, mitigation against extreme weather conditions, provision of clean healthy air, and all
these ensure the physical and mental well-being of humans (Ciccarese, et al., 2012). Figure 1
shows the services generated from ecosystem as wood, livelihood, water filtration, fisheries,
tourism and most importantly costal protection. ED leads to ES being compromised or sometimes
lost.

Figure 1 : Mangrove is one of the important Ecosystem Services (ES). The figure showing benefit
people get from mangrove. (Sources: i. MEA, 2005; ii. 0.66% or 102,000 hectares annually (2000-
2005): FAO, 2007, iii. Spalding et al., 2010; iv. Alongi, 2015; v. Duke, et al., 2017; vi. Lovelock, et al.,
2017; vii. Small, et al., 2003; Viiii. UNEP, 2014; ix. Valiela, et al., 2001; 10. Over 2000-2012, Richards
& Friess, 2016(International Union for Conservation of Nature, 2018).
Nature Based Solutions (NbS)
NbS are the actions aimed at protecting, sustainably managing, and restoring modified or
natural ecosystems, that adapativey and effectively address societal challenges, and at the same
time providing biodiversity and well being benefits to human populations (Frantzeskaki, 2019;
Nesshöver et al., 2017). NbS addresses challenges such as food secuyrity, climate change, and
natural disasters. NbS is based on various principles that include emvbracingembracing
conservation norms based on nature, standalone implementation (of NbS), or inegrally with other
solutions such as technological, egal, and engineering solutions. NbS are determined by cultural
and natural contexts that are site-specific and include scientific, and traditional local knowledge
(Nesshöver et al., 2017). NbS have been proposed as being better suited to minimizing climate
change impacts because current methods such as spatial planning and ‘top-down’ engineering and
policiy solutions are difficult to integrate into some environments such as urban areas, are
inflexible, have high maintenance, and seldom make meaningful contributions to other challenges

facing society (Atun et al., 2019). NbS is being touted as potentially the best solution to
minimizing ED impacts and helping restore some ES. NbS is achieved through approaches such
as Eco-DDR, CCA, and EbA, which, when integrated with scientific concepts such as
environmental management policy, should help minimize ED impacts signifcanty, and restore
biodiversity and ES.
Ecosystem Based Disaster Risk Reduction (Eco-DDR)
This refers to the sustainable management, conservation, as well as restoration of
ecosystems so that they are able to provide services (ES) that reduce the risk of natural disasters,
for instance, cyclones, tsunamis, high tides, and earthquakes by mitigating the risk hazards while
also increasing the resilience of livelihoods (Frantzeskaki, 2019). Disasters are a social construct
and are determined to a large extent on the way a society manages the environment around it, the
present vulnerability conditions, available resources for recovery, and the capacity of these
communities to face adversity (Mcvittie, et al., 2018)(Atun et al., 2019).
Ecosystem Based Adaptation (EbA)
This is a broad range of approaches for communities and societies to adapt to climate
change. EbA pertain to ecosystems management as well as ES management in order to minimize
the vulnerability of human communities living in such environments to climate change (Vignola,
et al., 2015). Adaptation to climate change pertains to aiding communities and economies to
adjust and thrive in the face of climate change. Adaptation solutions can always be found in
nature and this has led to EbA growing in nature and stature since its definition by the CBD
(Convention on Biological Diversity) in 2009 (Vignola et al., 2015).
Ecosystem Service (ES) Valuation
This refers to an economic process in which values are assigned, of which value can be
biophysical, or monetary, and to an ecosystem and / or its ES and is the basis for determining the
success of NbS in minimizing the impacts of ED. The valuations are however estimates and entail
the quantitative uncertainties inherent in estimations (Mukherjee, et al., 2014). The framework is
depicted in the Illustration below (Figure: 2);

Figure 2: Showing the Ecosystem Service valuation approach through key factors Source: Author
Figure 2: Showing the Ecosystem Service valuation approach through key factors
Climate Change Adaptation (CCA)
CCA is a response to anthropogenic climate change (global warming) and refers to a
process of adjusting to expected or actual changes in climate and its effects, which are almost
always adverse, such as rising temperatures and melting glaciers. Climate change are the global
or regional climate pattern changes attributed to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide levels
genetaedgenerated by human activity (Lane, 2017).
Uncontrolled human activities such as over fishing and over exploitation of coastal
resources , as well as effects of non anthropogenicnon-anthropogenic factors, over time leads to
ED. Extensive ED, in turn, causes loss of ES, greater exposure to natural disasters, climate
change, and loss of biodiversity (Bennett et al., 2015). This research proposes NbS as the most
sustainable approach to reversing ED and restoring ES. NbS incorporates concepts such as EbA,
CCA, Eco-DDR; the effects of the NbS interventions can be evaluated using ES Evaluation.
Implementing NbS can also integrate other interventions such as public policy, all implemented
through community participation where traditional knowledge is used in implementing NbS to
acheve the twin ebenfits of conservation, ecosystem restoration, and ESNbS has is touted as a
possible solution to minimizing ED impacts and being able to restore some ES, that are measured

economically using ESV, and biodiversity. Elements of NbS include EbA, Eco-DDR, and CCA.
This proposal hypothesizes that integrating NbS with science based policies has the possibility of
restoring half of the lost ecosystem and ES within a decade. . The inter-connection between ES
loss and ED, hazards and disasters are shown in figures 3a and b. Disasters creates huge damage
to the environmental system; whereas ED accelerate disaster impact (Sudmeier-Rieux, et al.,
2017).
Figure 3a. Interlinkages between environment and disasters. (Source: Sandholz and Nehren, 2012).

Fig 3b. Interconnectedness between the key terms (ED, ES, NbS, ESV,
2.2 Importance of Ecosystem Services (ES) as a measure of coastal protection
The concept of ES was popularized in the 2000s by the MEA (Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment, 2005). ES (Mangrove, sand dunes, coral reef, sea grass and others) fall into four
major groups that include provisioning- for instance water and food production, supporting –
for example the production of oxygen and life supporting cycles such as the nitrogen cycle;
regulating – for instance climatic control, disease control, and cultural- for example
recreational benefits and spiritual well-being (Figure 4). These ES are valuated to help decision
makers make comparisons with human engineered services and infrastructures (Layke, et al.,
2012).

Figure 41: Important ecosystem services (ES) provided by Mangrove, Coastal Dune Systems
(CDS), Coral reef and others (in bold: regulating services directly related to natural hazards and
geo-processes; in italics; services, which could not be assessed in the case study areas on the
basis of available data) (Modified by Author from Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005),
TEBB (2014) and Nehren, et. al., (2016)).
Mangrove:
One particular tree species that is suitable for re-forestation initiatives is the mangrove; the tree
can be used for the reduction or mitigation of risks posed by climate change. Mangroves provide
buffers against human activity induced phenomena such as rising tides and erosion, while being
an important ecosystem that supports human livelihood by supporting a wide range of flora and
fauna (Deshmukh, 2017). Increased fishing activities, such as happened in Chakaria Sub-district,
where large swathes of mangrove have been cleared to pave way for shrimp farming and Salt
cultivation adversely harms the aquatic ecosystems (Rahman, et al., 2013). Shrimp pond effluents
generate nitrogen, that adversely affects the aquatic environment and mangroves have been
shown to effectively remove dissolved organic nitrogen rather than have the nitrogen discharged
to the estuarine (Rivera-Monroy, et al., 1999). Significant areas of mangrove forests have been
cleared to give way to brackish water aquaculture and this has adversely affected coastal
ecosystems (Ibharim, et al., 2015). There is need therefore, to conserve remaining mangrove
forests and this can succeed only through an integrated approach that involves the experts and
decision makers who have knowledge and involvement of the forests resources bases projects and
initiatives (Walters, et al., 2008). This is a concept termed ethnobiology and when combined with
socio economics, will enhance conservation through effective, people cantered mangrove forests
sustainable management through suitable ES measures (Walters et al., 2008).
Mangroves are a very important ecological biomass as they are salt resistant trees that have
numerous benefits in the context of climate change mitigation and minimizing the risk disasters
from climate change induced disaster events such as cyclones, tidal waves, and erosion (Das,
2017). Mangroves help in stabilizing shorelines and reduce effects of devastating natural
phenomena such as hurricanes and tsunamis (Sandilyan and Kathiresan, 2015). They provide
nursing and breeding for marine fish that are commercially important and are massive carbon
sinks, capable of sequestering 22.8 million tons of carbon annually, despite covering just 0.1% of
the earth surface (Atwood, et al., 2017). Mangroves are an important facet in EbA for coastal
ecosystems because of its myriad economic and ecological functions (Sandilyan and Kathiresan,
2015). It maintains connectivity with other coastal ESs, provides shelter, food, and protection to
several organisms, and acts as a barrier to natural disasters such as cyclones and tidal waves as
has been established in a Philippines study (Cuenca, et al., 2015). Mangroves have been

successfully used within a devolved community involvement approach to achieve EbA in the
Vietnamese Mekong Delta where farmers engage in shrimp farming within mangrove tress they
plant using their traditional knowledge (Ha, van Dijk & Bush, 2012); in figure 5, it can be seen
that the global annual expected damages from flooding with current mangroves (where less
damages took place) and without mangroves (where more damages observed). Mangroves are a
highly productive and dynamic ecosystem with important ecological functions as well as being an
important resource to coastal communities (Azam, 2011). Establishing carbon forests in a country
like Bangladesh is greatly beneficial as the trees absorb carbon, reduce emissions, and provide
ecological and economic benefits; the most suitable tree for the Bangladesh case is mangrove
(Rahman & Akter, 2013). Unregulated and continued shrimp farming and coastal resources
exploitation in Bangladesh has immense adverse effects on human health, the environment,
ecological systems, and sustainability (Azam, 2011). The shrimp farming activities result in
salinity intrusion, mangroves infringement, land degradation, and coastal systems destabilization
and NbS that that integrates economic activity with conservation efforts by local communities is a
promising solution (Rahman, et al., 2013).
Figure 5: The bars show the global annual expected damages from flooding with current
mangroves and without mangroves, including percent damages currently averted by mangrove
(Beck, et al, 2018)
Figure 6 shows the interrelationship among all the Ecosystem Services (ES) such as Mangrove,
Sea grasses and coral reefs and how human activities generate Environmental degradation
through activities such as over fishing, increased coastal erosion, increased sedimentation, and
reduced buffering from disaster through mangrove forest and sea grass decimation; eventually

results in economic loss due to loss of revenues from tourism, loss of fish, increasing impact from
disaster with more loss and damage.
Figure 6: Diagram showing the ecosystem connectivity between mangroves, seagrasses and
coral reefs. Ecological and physical connectivity between ecosystems is represented for each
ecosystem: terrestrial (brown arrows), mangroves (green arrows), seagrasses (blue arrows), and
coral reefs (red arrows). Potential feedbacks across ecosystems from the impacts of dissimilar
human deeds on ecosystem services are also shown (yellow arrows). (Source: Silvestri and
Kershaw, 2010).
Sand Dunes:

Sand dunes at coastal area play a significant role by providing as natural buffers between land
and sea and thereby protect people and infrastructure from coastal hazards (Sudmeier-Rieux, et
al. 2006; Prasetya, 2007; Gonsalves, and Mohan 2012; Hettiarachchi, et al. 2013). Based on sand
dune’s height and width, shape, continuity, and ecological status, sand duensdunes can reduce
the physical exposure of inland areas to coastal hazards such as tropical cyclones, storm surges,
wave action, coastal floods (Go´mez-Pina 2002; Dahm et al. 2005; Takle et al. 2007; Thao et al.
2014), and, to some extent, tsunamis (Liu et al. 2005; Bambaradeniya et al. 2006; Bhalla 2007;
Mascarenhas and Jayakumar 2008) along with coastal erosion (Barbier, et. al., 2011).
Fig 7: A coastal dune system is a buffer zone between the sea and landmass, which creates a
uniques Ecosystem. The later of fresh water (not saline) that comes from the precipitation that
infiltrated sand to a around 10 meter deep, this usually utilized as a household supply of
drinking water. This function around the coastal zone generates Ecosystem Services (ES).
(Source: Kaneko, et al., (2017)
Healthy Coral Reef:
Coral reefs is created by many tiny animals called coral polyps over the years that provide the
first line of defense against natural hazards such as high tides/ waves and cyclones and strong
currents. Figure 8 shows how Coral reefs generate Ecosystem Services through providing
support for marine species particularly fish and shellfish population, ensuring protein for 1billion
people, for medicine, generate attraction for tourism, providing first line coastal defensedefence
(Coral Reef Alliance, 2014).

Other natural coastal features such as sand dunes and coral reef are also important
ecosystem components that provide ES while helping protect populations from natural
phenomena such as cyclones (Barbier, et. al., 2011).; they mitigate the effects of erosion and
provide habitats for variousr variois fish species (Thao, et al. 2014)(Esteban, Takagi and Thao,
2014). Coral reefs is created by many tiny animals called coral polyps over the years that
provide the first line of defense against natural hazards such as high tides/ waves and
cyclones and strong currents. Figure 87 shows how Coral reefs generate Ecosystem Services
through providing support for marine species particularly fish and shellfish population, ensuring
protein for 1billion people, for medicine, generate attraction for tourism, providing first line
coastal defensedefence (Coral Reef Alliance, 2014).
Figure 8 : showing how Coral reefs generate Ecosystem Services for human and coastal species.
Source: Coral Reef Alliance, (2014).

2.3 Main Processes and Activities that Lead to Environmental Degradation
2.3.1 Mangrove forest clearing for agricultural and other economic activities deemed ‘more
commercially productive
Some Coastal Ecosystem services such as mangrove forests are often classified as having
little or no economic value, are smelly, and unproductive, and so are cleared to pave way for
activities deemed as being more ‘commercially beneficial’, including agriculture- rice farming
and fish farming, especially shrimp farming, infrastructure development (such as ports and
harbors), human settlements, and industrial areas (DasGupta & Shaw, 2013; Shahbudin, et al.,
2011). Figure 9 represents the challenges due to mangrove loss. Coastal ecosystems have also
been degraded by being cleared for tourist activities, shrimp aquaculture, rice cultivation, and to
create land for salt lands. Shrimp aquaculture is among the most destructive economic activities
destroying mangrove ecosystems, although rice cultivation has become a significant cause for
mangrove and coastal ecosystems degradation. This is also a major problem causing the massive
ED of the coastal and mangrove ecosystems in Bangladesh (Sohel and Ullah, 2012). Clearing
coastal ecosystem services for salt cultivation is also a major cause of the ED of mangrove and
coastal ecosystems because it not only results in clearance of mangrove forests, but leads to the
destruction and wiping out of organisms and species such as Austruca occidentalis (the fiddler
crab) (Nehemia & Kochzius, 2017). The unplanned expansion of shrimp farming and salt
cultivation generates issues of enormous pressure on coastal afforestation program. As a result,
the study area is under potential threat because of the continuous Environmental Degradation
(ED) that needs to be addressed (Hossain, et al., 2013). Figure 8 clearly showing the major
driving forces of mangrove loss (one of the most important coastal Ecosystem Services) such as
logging, aquaculture, agriculture, pollution, coastal development and the resulted impact on
Ecosystem such as altered species composition, pollution and climate change.

Figure 9: Figure showing the threat of disturbance with in any Ecosystem Services (ES) such as
Mangrove. Sources: i. MEA, 2005; ii. 0.66% or 102,000 hectares annually (2000-2005): FAO, 2007, iii.
Spalding et al., 2010; iv. Alongi, 2015; v. Duke, et al., 2017; vi. Lovelock, et al., 2017; vii. Small, et al.,
2003; Viiii. UNEP, 2014; ix. Valiela, et al., 2001; 10. Over 2000-2012, Richards & Friess,
2016(International Union for Conservation of Nature, 2018)
Forest degradation and global deforestation have resulted in massive biodiversity loss and
ecosystem services decline, it is crucial that forest ecosystems are conserved/ protected
(Ciccarese, et al., 2012). Unplanned land use change is a significant contributor to ED that results
in accelerated climate change; climatic changes are in turn a major biodiversity loss driver
(Borras & Franco, 2018). The increased impacts from climate change such as rising ocean
temperatures and sea levels also induce disasters because natural events such as storms and
cyclones occur at a higher frequency and severity, and ED of buffers such as mangroves make the
outcomes even more devastating (Mendelsohn, et al., 2012; Ahmed & Suphachalasai, 2014). The
effects of climate change will be a significant rise in sea levels in several places, although this
will not be uniform (Williams, et al., 2016). Further, there will be warming of Islands with the
result being increased rainfall with strong decadal variations (Sarker & Ahmed, 2015). With
increasing carbon dioxide concentrations, the result will be ocean acidification that compromises
the ability of sea organisms such as coral to maintain their levels of calcium carbonate (Williams
et al., 2016). ED of coastal ecosystems also puts health and lives at risk as the quality of drinking

water is adversely affected due to human activities, as is the case in Bangladesh coastal
communities (Sarker & Ahmed, 2015). These effects can be mitigated through strategies that
involve communities, with ecosystem based adaptation and sustainable interventions showing
particular promise (Grantham, et al., 2011; Debele, et al., 2019).
It is also immensely important socio-economically as a buffer against waves and saline intrusion,
playing an important role in mitigating floods, a hydrological regulator, and a source fuel wood,
and various products the locals benefit from (Islam, et al., 2013). It is therefore of immense
important that remaining ES be protected, while degraded areas be restored through reforestation
as has been done in the Matang province of Malaysia (Islam, et al., 2013).
2.3.2 Over Exploitation of Fish Resources
The world is facing a global crisis of over fishing and its adversely affecting delicate
ocean and aquatic ecosystem balances far beyond the direct effects of over fishing. Overfishing
adversely affects delicate ecological balances in the fish communities in mangroves is altered
adversely (Spalding, et al., 2014).
2.3.3 Coral Reef Destruction
The destruction of coral reefs leaves the mangrove forests lying further close to the coastlines
more exposed to the vagaries of strong currents and waves that reach the coast at high speeds and
tide heights, adversely undermining sediments upon which mangroves grow. This prevents
mangrove seedlings from taking root, washes away nutrients, and thereby, contributing to
mangrove forest damage (Wilkinson & Salvat, 2012). The coral reefs act as buffers for shorelines
against floods, waves, and storms and this helps minimize loss of property, life, soil erosion, and
damage to fragile coastal ecosystems (see Fig 10). Approaches to compensate for coral reef
destructions have been proposed; these include man made concrete barriers and poles, bamboo
revetment, which themselves also have adverse effects, by creating adverse impact on species and
adjoining habitats that rely on coral reefs (Beck, 2019).
2.3.4 Pollution
Man-made chemicals and toxic fertilizers used along coastlines and further inland find
their way into coastal and mangrove ecosystems carried by river systems. These chemicals and
fertilizers that are harmful to organisms and the environment kill organisms living within the
mangrove ecosystem (Bayen, 2012). Further, pollution from oil, either spilled on aquatic
environments or washed into mangrove forests suffocate and smother mangrove roots and result
in the death of mangrove tress and/ or decimation of the forests as seedlings fail to grow (Orji, et
al., 2012).

2.3.5 Climate change
For mangrove forests to thrive, they require certain conditions, the most important being
stable sea levels in order to survive and thrive in the long term. Mangroves are highly sensitive to
changes in sea water levels and the present situation where climate change has induced a rise in
sea water levels has led to a reduction in the size and diversity of mangrove forests (Murdiyarso,
et al., 2015).
These activities and processes have continued despite the presence of several
polciespolices and laws adopted by Bangladesh aimed at minimizing ED. Such polciespolices
include the BECA (Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act) of 1995 whose goas are
environmental conservation, improve environment standards, and mitigation and control of
environmental pollution (Lubala, 2019). Another policy is the Environment Court Act of 2010
whise goalobjective was os to ensure speedy handling and disposal of cases related to ED (Sajal,
2015). Its effectivnesseffectiveness is hindered though because it cannot be directly approached
by people (Lubaba, 2019). The 1927 Forests Act is another policy that is geared towards forest
conservation and ecouragingencouraging participation by local populations towards sustainable
forest conservation (Lubala, 2019). Another is the Wildlife Act of 2012 whose goal is wildlife,
biodiversity, and forests conservation. The Bangladesh Biodiversity Act of 2017 to
consrveconserve biodiversity by regulating who can have access to biological resources as well
as traditional knowledge (Sajal, 2015). Another is the 2013 Brick Manufacturing and Kilns
Control Act that is aimed at regulating the brick manufacturing industry (Abir, 2019). These main
policies are good and well intendedwell-intended, but their implementation and impact have been
far less than satisaftorysatisfactory or successful (Lubaba, 2019).
2.4 Effects and Outcomes of the Mangrove Ecosystem Degradation
2.4.1 Increase in Salinity
The south-eastern coastal region was observed to be affected by salinity intrusion (Rasel,
et al., 2013; Saha, 2017). For being close to seawater, the south-eastern coastal area is vulnerable
to be contaminated in its freshwater aquifers mainly due to Sea-Level Rise (SLR), land
subsidence, extensive level of shrimp farming and salt production, over-consumption of
groundwater (Vineis, 2011, Werner, et al., 2013, Baten, et al., 2015, Faneca, et al., 2015 and
Khanom, 2016). The level of salinity is predicted to rise further in the near future due to a
decrease in river flows, increase in upstream withdrawal, and increased ground water extraction
(Vineis, 2011).

2.4.2 Increased Exposure and Higher Impacts of Disasters- Exposure as major driver of
disaster risk
Considering the example of Nepal, the Figure 10 elucidates urban population increasing trend in a
city in eastern Nepal, with over 200 households moved to that area and settled by the banks of the
river over a time period of five years (2004-2009), mostly in shanty houses. A huge flood in 2013
generates massive damage to this area of the city mainly because of exposure.
Figure 11. Demonstratione that how exposure is a major driving factor for disaster risk, not only
in Nepal but worldwide Redrawn maps. Left: Seuti Khola River, Dharan Nepal in 2004; Right
Seuti Khola River, Dharan Nepal in 2009. Credit: K. Sudmeier-Rieux, 2009 (Source: Sudmeier-
Rieux, et al., 2017).

Figure 10: Showing how healthy coral reefs with live coral ensure much greater protection
against coastal disasters (such as storm surge with strong wave current, coastal flooding and
others) than degraded reefs with low live coral cover. (Source: NOAA, 2020)
Coastal areas are made up of a number of inland islands and ecosystems that are highly fragile
and vulnerable to natural effects and human activity (Barua and Rahman 2018). The effects of
global warming such as rising sea levels and ocean surface temperatures make the infrastructure
of coastal communities and the surrounding coastal ecosystems vulnerable to natural disasters
(Monaco & Prouzet, 2014). As such, critical thinking, based on the disaster theory, needs to be
applied in order to understand these disasters and what causes them, for example, decimation of
mangroves and coral reefs (Etkin, 2015). Figure 11 shows how mangrove protect any coastal area
and act as a natural buffer from risk of coastal disasters.
Coral Reefs
Damaged coral reefs
Mangrove
Wave current strongly hit the exposed shore due to
the absence of mangrove and damaged coral reefs

Figure 12 : Figure showing how Mangroves prevent erosion and reduce the force of waves,
storm surge and flooding. (Beck, et al., 2018, Global mangrove Aliance)
The major part of the south-eastern coastal region is exposed to open sea. As per the history of
disaster of Bangladesh coastal region from 1960 to 2015, it has been found that the intensity and
frequency of disaster has been increased (Barua and Rahman, 2018); the cyclonic storm and its
surge taken away huge life and resources of the community people (Barua, et al., 2017). The
outbreak of 30 cyclones that occurred in the Bay of Bengal between 2010 and 2017 (7 years)
generated huge damages of the life and property of this region, approximately 574,000 residents
of this area had to be moved from their own home and community (Barua, et al., 2017). This kind
of displacement occurred mainly due to recurrent disaster such as devastating cyclones, rising in
tide along with gradual coastal erosion, hazardous mode of transport facilities and absence of
updated utility facilities of power, health services, and safe drinking water and others resulted in
miserable life among the south-eastern coastal community (Ciavola, et al., 2015). The disaster
preparedness measures have also been ineffective due to uncertain climatic systessystems due to
global and local climate changes (Alam, Lindeboom, Begum & Kim Streatfield, 2012). In
addition, the flood risk of the study area is impacted by the high and low tide; although the storm
level remained low, the coastal flooding level became high from the level of high coastal tide
(Alam, Lindeboom, Begum & Kim Streatfield, 2012; Barua, Hossain, Chowdhury & Mitra,
2011). However, the initiatives taken for disaster preparedness has somewhat proven to be not
effective for being depended on the weather forecasting system only, there is a lack of
Loss of mangrove and coral reefs, increased
exposure, strong and comparatively high wave
currents strike the at shore habitat

Government initiatives that is mainly depends on adaptation through infrastructure that did
involve the traditional knowledge on ecosystem that may ensure protection for long term
(Mallick, Rubayet Rahaman & Vogt, 2011).
2.4.3 Resettlement of Victims in Coastal Areas Where Forests have to be cleared
The Bangladeshi government has resettled victims of climate induced displacement in
land that would otherwise be used for agricultural purposes (Rahman, et al., 2014). These
resettlements increase population pressure and people over exploit coastal resources, further
exacerbating ED (Barua and Rahman, 2018). The resettlement initiatives increase population
pressure and already vulnerable groups that are largely poor resort to coastal and mangrove
ecosystems exploitation, further exacerbating ED (Penning-Rowsell, Sultana & Thompson,
2013).
2.4.4 Coastal Infrastructure Damages
Inhabitants in the south-eastern coastal region use man-made infrastructure such as bamboo
revetment, concrete poles, and also raise the Dyke used as a barrier against coastal erosion to
shield their dwellings from coastal flooding and storm surges exposing the coastal areas to greater
effects of natural disasters (Barua, et al., (2017).
2.5 Importance of Considering Sustainable Measures based on Nature- Nature-based
Solution (NbS) as an Umbrella Approach
NbS is a superior and highly effective approach to enhancing ecosystems through natural land
management. NbS are actions aimed at protecting, managing sustainably, and restoring natural or
modified ecosystems in a way that addresses the challenges mentioned in the preceding section in
a manner that is effective and adaptive. This also simultaneously restores ES and provides
benefits to human populations while also providing biodiversity benefits (Cohen-Shacham, et al.,
2019). NbS maintains and enhances cultural and biological diversity allowing ecosystems to
evolve with time. NbS solutions are implemented in a landscape scale and it recognizes and deals
with trade-offs between generating few and immediate economic and well being benefits and the
full range ES. NbS is an integral part of overall policy development aimed at addressing ED
(Keesstra, et al., 2018). NbS can implemented on their own or together with other solutions
including policy, and engineering and technological solutions. At its core is natural conservation
using sustainable methods that generate benefits to society equitably (Lafortezza, et al., 2018).

2.5.1 Opportunities of Ecosystem-based approaches in CCA and DRR
According to the World Economic Forum (WEF), Global Risk Report of (2016), the highest risk
observed as the failure in the risk of Climate Change Mitigation (McVittie, et al., 2018).
Therefore, there is an immediate need to step up actions to face upcoming changes in Climate
condition and the resulting impact, to increase resilience and strengthening the capacity of
community people and Ecosystem Services (ES) to reduce the impact of future disasters
(McVittie, et al., 2018). Both Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) and Ecosystem-based Disaster
Risk Reduction (Eco-DRR) deliver cost-effective, useful and flexible alternatives being a part of
overall strategy for CCA and DRR (see Fig 12); simultaneously providing multiple co-benefits
for the human inhabitants, nature, surrounding ecosystem and the whole economy.
Figure 13. The relationship between ecosystems, society and climate change adaptation (CCA) & disaster risk
reduction (DRR). The figure shows the impact (in terms of damage and cost versus benefits) on ecosystems and
society from different scenarios of planned adaptation strategies: solely technical or structural (blue), solely
ecosystem-based (dark pink), and an integrated framework containing both strategies (purple). The impact on
society from the two measures in isolation is positive and negative; negative in this instance is due to cost and
feasibility. Source: Doswald and Estrella, 2015.

Figure 12. The relationship between ecosystems, society and climate change adaptation (CCA) & disaster risk
reduction (DRR). Source: Doswald and Estrella, 2015.
The premise of this research proposal is the use of a nature-based alone as well as hybrid
approach that entails NbS and human engineered infrastructures to mitigate the effects of ED,
including exposure to natural disasters, a response attained under the frameworks of Eco-DDR
and CCA. The ecosystem-based measures provide enormous benefit such as increase in wetland
creating sedimentation without an adverse effect on environment, it may be used as long-terms
measures that protect the area during disaster and minimize the impact of Environmental
degradation. The achievement of the hybrid- NbS with infrastructures is to be achieved through a
mix of EbA and EbM and for this proposed approach to be successful, it must be a top down
approach where environmental conservation practitioners use new NbS approaches and work
with communities to ensure Ecosystem Services restoration that include mangrove, sea grasses
and coral reefs (Figure: 13) and sand dunes (figure 14) due to the numerous benefits that they
provide, including protecting shorelines from storms, waves, winds, and hurricane damage,
preventing erosion, acting as a massive carbon sink, maintaining the clarity and quality of water,
trapping sediments, filtering out pollutants, and providing a habitat for various organisms such as
fish, as well as energy in the form of wood fuel and conservation (Walton, et al., 2006). NbS
integrated with artificial infrastructure (e.g. embankments, sea wall) and in a hybrid approach
may be essential to provide protection of critical resources (Figure 13 and Figure 14). (Sudmeier-
Reux, et al., 2017).

Figure 15: Example of hybrid approach where ES-based initiatives and conventional structural measures exist
together. Photo of Hybrid coastal defence, Sri Lanka. Photo credit: B. McAdoo (Source: Sudmeier-Rieux, et al.,
2017)
Figure 16. Example of hybrid approach where ES-based initiatives and conventional structural
measures exist together. An Austrian mountain road threatened by rock fall with three different
protection measures commonly used in the Alps: a rock fall net, a rock fall dam and a protection
forest Credit: L. Dorren, 2004, (Source: Sudmeier-Rieux, et al., 2017).
The multiple benefits of Eco-DRR/EbA is presented in Figure 15; preserving and reinstating
natural infrastructure can offer a high benefit to cost-ratio compared to engineered infrastructure,
when considering the full range of benefits provided by ecosystems. Besides, they also ensure
supplementary co-benefits regardless of a disaster event (cf. Narayan, et al. 2016, Wamsler, et al.
2016). Dykes or concrete walls achieve the same objective of nmitigating natural disaster effects
(Sudmeier-Rieux, et al., 2017).

Figure 17: Multiple benefits of Eco-DRR/CCA as compared to engineered infrastructure. Credits: U. Nehren, S.
Sandholz, Design: S. Plog (Source: Sudmeier-Rieux, et al., 2017).
Figure 16 is an outstanding image of the diverse levels of vegetation cover between Haiti (left of
road) and the Dominican Republic (right of road) and how they result in very different outcomes
for both countries. In Haiti, severe ED is one of the major underlying risk factors – lead to
enhancing vulnerability and risk to hazard events such as the 2004 Tropical Storm Jeanne that
caused over 1,600 deaths took place in Haiti. Whereas, in the neighbouring Dominican Republic,
the same disaster created a very less damage and only 18 death casualties were found.

Figure 18: Border between Haiti on left, Dominican Republic on right. Photo Credit: UN
Environment. (Source: Sudmeier-Rieux, et al., 2017).
From the studies of Sudmeier-Rieux, et al. (2017), similar case found on natural coastal
protection from Sri Lanka, where human intervention accelerated the impact from the Indian
Ocean tsunami in 2004. Figure 17 shows Yala National Park in Southern Sri Lanka that was
striked by the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004 shown in figure 18. In the photo on the left, a few
green rooftops of an ecotourism resort that was protected by coastal sand dunes was seen. The
wave height was like ankle height only 5 cm and there were no death reported. The photo on the
right shows the Yala Safari Resort that lies very close by the beach not far away from the
ecotourism resort, where the sand dunes had been removed for better ocean views. Here the wave
height was reached 7 meters and 27 people died.

Figure 19. Left: Yala National Park, Sri Lanka and nested ecotourism resort. Photo credit: B. McAdoo; Right:
Yala Safari resort, Sri Lanka. Photo credit: B. McAdoo (Source: Sudmeier-Rieux, et al., 2017).
Limitationd of NbS and other Hybrid Infrastructures
NbS is a fairly new concept whose effectiveness is largely based on short term evidence, or modeling so it is
essentially still just a concept that has not been rigorously tested and proven over a long period of time
(Seddon et al., 2020). Many ecosystems transition or are in a transition process to new alternative states in
light of climate change and ED. Some of the new states are not able to support human adaptation, a key faced
of NbS, for instance, algae dominated reefs due to mass mortality of coral. More work is required to model the
variance of NbS performance due to climate change (Seddon et al., 2020). There are also difficulties in the
measurement of NbS effectiveness while its (NbS) cost-effectiveness remains unknown. There is evidence of
lack of, or minimal investments in NbS by Governments or the private sector, despite acknowledgement of its
benefits, t is not known how the Bangladesh Government and other private/ non governmental stakeholders
will respond (Seddon et al., 2020).
2.6 Conceptual framework
Due to overexploitation of the mangrove ecosystem in Chakaria sub-district coupled with
ineffective policies and lack of social and political will, there is Environmental Degradation (ED)
leading to loss of/ reduced Ecosystem Services (ES), increased susceptibility to natural disasters
like high tides and cyclones, and loss of habitat that leads to accelerated climate change effect. A
new approach is proposed in this research that aims at restoring ES where DRR and CCA are
achieved through Nature Based Solutions (NbS) that include EbA, EbM, Eco-DDR in which the
local community actively participate in the implementation through mangrove reforestation and
conservation, coupled with effective implementation of policies. The result is restoration of
Ecosystem Services and improved subsistence and commercial benefits while the mangrove
ecosystem is restored and conserved. This is depicted in the Illustration next page (figure: 18).

The premise of this research proposal is the use of a nature-based alone as well as hybrid
approach that entails NbS and human engineered infrastructures to mitigate the effects of ED,
including exposure to natural disasters, a response attained under the frameworks of Eco-DDR
and CCA. Figure 14 illustrates the implementation outcome of installing conventional coastal
engineering and ecosystem-based coastal defence. The ecosystem-based measures provide
enormous benefit such as increase in wetland creating sedimentation without an adverse effect
on environment, it may be used as long-terms measures that protect the area during disaster
and minimize the impact of Environmental degradation.
Figure 14: Example of conventional coastal engineering structures for coastal defence, compared to
Ecosystem-Based approaches. The latter can provide longer –term sustainable coastal flood defence,
by increasing wetland sedimentation and wetland creation (right panels) (Temmerman, et al., 2013,
p2).
2.5.2 Limitation of Ecological (ES-based) infrastructures
Ecosystems also have drawbacks. Implementing ES based infrastructure can take more time and
need additional space. For example, trees always required time to grow before the forested
resource can provide effective protection from landslides and avalanches. Though there are so
many positive outcome, but it should not replace existing crucial DRR measures, such as early
warning systems, preparedness, training and adequate contingency planning. Depending on the
situation, specially, the type of disaster risk (i.e. expected magnitude of the hazard and density
of settlements), ecological infrastructure should be considered as complementary to artificial or

hard structural measures as long as there are very few additional environmental impacts. It is
crucial to involve natural science experts together with disaster risk experts, to do site- and
context-specific planning and to consider future climate scenarios. Ecological infrastructure can
have the failure for example when long-term maintenance is not guaranteed, or species are
selected are not best fitted. In some cases, natural buffers are not feasible due to biological
drawbacks, space restraints, incompatibility with priority land uses, or prohibitive costs (Figure
20).
Figure 20: potentials of ecological engineering, Credits: S. Sandholz, Layout S. Plog (Source: Sudmeier-Rieux, et
al., 2017).

2.6 Conceptual framework
Due to overexploitation of the mangrove ecosystem in Chakaria sub-district coupled with
ineffective policies and lack of social and political will, there is Environmental
Degradation (ED) leading to loss of/ reduced Ecosystem Services (ES), increased
susceptibility to natural disasters like high tides and cyclones, and loss of habitat that leads
to accelerated climate change effect. A new approach is proposed in this research that aims
at restoring ES where DRR and CCA are achieved through Nature Based Solutions (NbS)
that include EbA, EbM, Eco-DDR in which the local community actively participate in the
implementation through mangrove reforestation and conservation, coupled with effective
implementation of policies. The result is restoration of Ecosystem Services and improved
subsistence and commercial benefits while the mangrove ecosystem is restored and
conserved. This is depicted in the Illustration next page (figure: 21).
Existing Coastal
Hazard
High impact Extreme
Disaster events
(increase in frequency
and intensity)
EFFECTS
- Coastal Erosion
- Loss of land
- Displaced people
- Increase in salinity
- Weakening of protection
infrastructure
Existing CCA and DRR
- Conventional Structural
measures (embankment,
dyke, drainage systems and
others)
- Non-structural measures e.g.,
awareness raising,
preparedness and others
Proposed ES-based sustainable
intervention as NbS (EbA, Eco-
DRR, EbM)
- Implemented alone or with
existing infrastructure as “hybrid
Infrastructure”;
- Non-structural measures
considering ecosystem, e.g.,
awareness raising on ES values
SHORT TERM
Reduce the impact of
disaster LONG TERM
extensively red
impact of disas
Long-term thro
based sustaina
Intervention im
alone or comb
the convention
as “Hybrid Infr
to ensure susta
- No-regret strategy
- Cost-effective
- Strengthening the
function of conventional
structures
- Reduce the impact of ED
Considering ES in CCA and DRR
Vulnerability
Without
considering
ecosystem
Impact
Climate
Change
Exposur

Figure 21: Conceptual Framework of the study

3. Methodology
This proposed research will be based on an exploratory research approach – this type of
approach is done for problems that have not been studied in a manner that is clearer and is
intended to develop operational definitions and establish priorities (Heller, 2011). This overall
approach is chosen because it helps determine the best methods for data collection, research
design, and subject selection. This proposed research aims at gaining deeper insights into the
concept of NbS in order to use it as the basis for reversing ED and an exploratory research
approach is more suitable for this type of study aim (Cronin, 2014). Exploratory research findings
give useful insights into problems; in this case ED, and these insights are important in developing
an all-encompassing approach based on NbS in the case study area in order to find a
sustainable solution to ED. Exploratory research studies are designed to find answers of the type
‘WHAT’ or ‘WHO’ and when used with additional methods such as interviews, provide critical
insights that will ensure the objectives of this research are met. The research approach is also very
suited to case studies as is the case in this proposal (Cronin, 2014). It is a mixed method research
that entails both qualitative and quantitative research methods where surveys will be done as well
as observations and interviews (Frels and Onwuegbuzie, 2013). The research will entail empirical
data collection using qualitative and quantitative survey methods with the participants being
experts in environmental conservation, such as policy makers in governments, NGO’s, research
organizations, and special interest groups involved in conservation. The respondents have been
involved in various ways in assessing ED, developing policies, and implementing them, and so
they have practical knowledge, institutional memory, and experience as well as understanding of
ED and environmental management policies. The proposed research reflects the Chakaria sub-
district socio-economic diversity and conditions even though data will be collected from experts
in conservation located within the capital, Dhaka. Semi structured interviews will be conducted as
well as discussions with experts in order to obtain in detailed and depth responses form
participants. Illustration I below shows the methodological approach for the research involving
experts at different levels with various government and non-governmental organizations. The
methodology framework is shown below;

Methodology framework table
Hypothesis: Sustainable interventions using Nature Based Solutions implemented alone or conjointly with
existing environmental management policies, and artificial infrastructure will minimize and reverse the
ongoing Environmental Degradation (ED) within the Chakaria sub-district coastal ecosystem and result in
enhanced conservation and restore Ecosystem Services.
Objectives 1 2 3
What are the impacts
and effects of ED of the
Chakaria Sub-District
ecosystem
ES valuation using
InVEST platform.
How interventions and
policies for protection
have fared (effectiveness)
How sustainable NbS integrated
with effective policies as a possible
solution to restore ES an
biodiversity
Analysis domain ED and its impacts Reasons for failure of
existing policies
How NbS and effective policies
can sustainably conservation and
ES
Success of
information and
data
SSI (Semi structured
interviews), KII
Focus Group Discussions Physical gGeographic observations
of the area, secondary sources
Analytical
techniques and
tools
Statistical analysis
descriptive analysis,
Thematic analysis,
descriptive analysis
Graphical illustration , InVEST
software for ES mapping
Outcomes Effects of ED on
Chakaria Sub-District
ecosystem with respect
to biodiversity and ES
Reasons why existing
interventions have failed
Sustainability interventions
Result Potential for NbS integrated with effective policies as a promising solution to minimize
impacts of ED, restoration of ES and biodiversity by at least 40% within a decade in the
study area.

Problem/Issue Purpose/Objectives Method Expected Output
1
2
3

3.1 Study area
The Chakaria sub-district located in Bangladesh South Eastern coastal region is a
biodiversity hub and a fragile ecosystem beset massive environmental degradation and disasters
that include increased erosion, destruction of fishing grounds, biodiversity destruction, coastal
habitat loss, changes in sedimentation patterns, shoreline configuration changes, and increased
adverse effects of cyclonic destruction and high tides (Deb and Ferreira, 2017). The cumulative
effect is adverse socio-economic effects to 90% of the regions’ local community resulting in
unintended migrations and transformations (Hossain, et al., 2011). This proposed research will
focus on the Chakaria sub-district area of Cox’ Bazaar district which has borne the disasters due
to the environmental degradation of the mangrove forest (Chakaria sundarbans). The focus area is
densely populated with a population density of 2,289,990 people based on 2011 census (Deb and
Ferreira, 2017).
3.2 Study Population
The research will use as participants professionals, government and non-government
actors, and non-governmental organization representatives for the survey and will include staff
from DDM, DoE, DMC, BCCSAP, and LGEDvarious government and non governmental
organizations involved in environmental conservation, policy making, or policy implementation.
These are subject matter ‘experts’ because they have (or are) been invovedinvolved in poliypolicy
formulation, its implementation, and are also involved in conservation of the environment in
Bangladesh. As such, they have a deeper understanding and appreciation of ED, conservation
efforts, and policies, including why policies have not been successful. The rationale for this
choice is that these people have a better technical understanding of ED and application of
ecosystem services for DRR and CCA in the context of Bangladesh/ in the study area, its effects,
and the reasons as to why past and current interventions have not been effective. Experts
operating at the local level of the study area will also be targeted as participants in the survey and
will be valuable in giving information concerning ED in the study area and how it has affected
the residents and how residents have responded to these impacts as well as give insights on what
approaches can be effective.
3.2 Data Collection
3.3.1 Surveys Using Questionnaires
Data on the adverse effects of the Chakaria mangrove degradation and its adverse effects
will be collected using well developed and pretested questionnaires will be administered to
participants (subject matter practitioners and experts) in the capital Dhaka. The participants will
be selected from the population of subject matter experts/ practitioners in a way that truly reflects

the target population to ensure research validity (Moser & Korstjens, 2017). The survey will
target participants from the study population from the City who are involved in environmental
efforts in the region and also in the specific study area. The local statistics office will help in
providing preliminary data on households. The sampling will be refined and done scientifically
to take into account the error probability, the number of households, conservation efforts already
in place, the main players/ stakeholders, and to achieve a confidence level of 99% with at least
3.05 confidence intervals. The sample size will be computed based on the relation n = N/1+a2 x N
In which n represents number of samples, a is error probability, and N is number of participants.
The questionnaire will be developed so as to get the information on how much of the mangrove
forest has been destroyed, causes of destruction, the economic activities of the respondents and
whether they depend on the coastal ecosystem. Questions will also be asked based on the
disasters and how they have affected the local population and the mangrove ecosystem, and why
existing policies have not succeeded. The respondents will also be asked the best way to conserve
and restore the mangrove forests and the willingness of the locals to participate in it, as well as
reasons why existing conservation laws and efforts have not been successful. Questions on
methods of restoration will be based on the theme of sustainable methods for conservation.
3.3.2 Key Information Interviews (KII)
To obtain indepthin-depth detailed information on the disasters caused by degradation of
the Chakaria sundarbans as well as causes of destruction, ways in which the damage can be
reserved and reasons why previous attempts have failed, KII will be undertaken. A total of 5
focus groups are suggested for this phase of research and each discussion will last about two
hours. The focus group discussions will be done using the framework of having reasonable
participant size (4-6) people), homogeneity in of persons inn terms of gender and profession, and
having a protocol writer, a single organizer, and moderator. Audio recording devices will be
used, with permission and agreement of participants and any material such as maps, data, and
images will be printed and shared with the participants.
3.3.3 Semi structured interviews (SSI)
In depth interviews will be conducted with respect to sustainable conservation and
practitioners participation as well as on the impacts of the natural phenomenon as a consequence
of ED in the Chakaria sundarbans; interviews to be done on subject matter experts and
practitioners at Dhaka City. The questions will be prepared and pretested and then shared with
respondents prior to the interview to help them prepare for the interviews. A total of 25
interviews are planned and will be undertaken in a way that ensures research validity and

reliability. The sessions will last between 45 minutes and 60 minutes and will be recorded after
permission is obtained from participants.
3.3.4 Observation of Geographic Survey Data and InVEST
Survey data from past surveys of GIS as well as remote sensing maps of the area will also
be used in this research to evaluate the extent of mangrove forest damage in the survey area.
Other features to be observed include data/ maps on the destructive activities going on in the area,
and the socio-economic condition and activities of participants. The observation will be done
physically and through the use of computer models in which the InVEST software system will be
used to compute the ES value for the study area and the trade offs. The data from the InVEST
mapping of the region over a long period of time will be used to evaluate various scenarios
involving the use of NbS and this will help in decision making, especially for implementing NbS
and integrating it with effective policies (Ecosystems Knowledge Network, 2020).
3.4 Data Analysis
Data will be analyzed using appropriate methods, depending on data; questionnaire
results will be evaluated statistically with the student t test and ANOVA (analysis of variance
undertaken), in addition to mean and median metrics. The KII and semi structured interviews will
be analyzed thematically to identify the main themes while descriptive analysis methods will be
used to analyze the information and data from images/ maps. Graphical methods will also be
used. The data will be analyzed and discussed based on the theoretical constructs for sustainable
conservation discussed in the literature review.

3.8 Indicative scheduled timeline of research activities
Year June 2019 2020 2021 2022
Major research activities Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4
Quarter 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3
Stage 1: Go through the current literature on Nature-based initiatives implemented all the world and
limitation, challenges during implementation; conducting in-depth literature review on Environmental
degradation and possible solution method to reduce the impact of disasters, existing policies and future
actions
· Preparing research aim, objectives, questions and draft of full research proposal.
· Confirmation presentation
Stage 2: Ethics & Safety application and approval and research methods development.
· Collection of documentation; development of questionnaire
· Initial Primary data will be collected through interview, information from relevant
organization (survey, investigation, calculation, and others), then analysis and
documented.
· Collecting secondary data from different sources
Stage 3: Data and information analysis through statistical instruments and others
Stage 4: Statistical, sensitive analysis, and assessment
Stage 5: Paper writing, submission and publication
Stage 6: Selecting best approach to minimize Environmental Degradation (ED) that is acceptable by all
group of targeted samples
Stage 7: Thesis writing and final submission

4. Conclusion
The world is faced with myriad environmental challenges that expose communities to
disasters and climate change. The challenges are mainly brought about by human activities and
result in massive environmental degradation. This proposal identified the Chakaria sub-district in
south eastern coast of Bangladesh, specifically the Cox Bazaar District where there has been
massive degradation and loss of ES. The paper identified the problem as being massive loss of the
mangrove ecosystem while official laws and policies enacted to protect and conserve these
regions have largely failed due to lack of social and political participation and will. The literature
review revealed this ED increases risks of disasters to communities, of which disasters are
naturally (exacerbated), economic, social, and well-being (health). The proposed research
literature review identified sustainable approaches as being suitable in restoring ES and ensuring
conservation; after undertaking research, the most suitable approach based on a rigorous research
findings will be put forth as. The sustainability theoretical constructs to guide the research include
sustainable interventions based on NbS , with mangroves providing a cost-effective biomass for
the achievement of these constructs. The proposed research approach is exploratory,
incorporating mixed method research and will involve KII, interviews, interviews, and evaluation
of existing images/ maps and data. Findings will be analyzed using illustrative graphs and
descriptive methods.

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