Environmental Policies in Nigeria: Delta State Socioeconomic Impact

This report provides a comprehensive evaluation of Nigerian environmental policies, particularly focusing on their impact on the socioeconomic status of the indigenes in the oil-producing communities of Delta State. The study examines the effectiveness of environmental policies, including the implementation of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA), in relation to education, unemployment, and healthcare. It explores the historical context of the oil and gas sector in Nigeria, analyzes environmental impacts, and investigates the reasons behind the failures of EIA implementation. The research utilizes secondary data sources to assess the implications of policies on socioeconomic development and identifies gaps in policy implementation, community support, and cultural diversity cognizance. The report concludes with recommendations for decentralizing environmental responsibilities and maintaining timelines to achieve sustainability in environmental policies, thereby enhancing socioeconomic growth. The study emphasizes the need for improved policy regulations to reduce civil unrest and environmental exploitation.

Running Head: EVALUATION OF NIGERIAN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES ON SOCIO-
ECONOMIC LIVES
Evaluating the Nigerian Government Environmental Policies on the socio-economic status of the
indigenes in the oil producing communities: A case study of Delta state
Student name
University name
Author notes

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I want to thank the Almighty for the unforeseen support provided to me in carrying out
this research work. I also want to thank my family, friends and near and dear ones who have
directly or indirectly encouraged me in completing this research work. I extend my sincere note
of thanks to the professors and mentors who have constantly supported and encouraged me in
completion of the report work on time.
Student name
Signature
………………………….

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The thesis paper aims at evaluating the environmental policies and strategies by the
Government in regard to socio-economic status in the Niger Delta state. The socio-economic
aspects of education, unemployment and healthcare are considered in relation to the
environmental policies of the Federal government of Nigeria. The objectives of the study include
environmental policy effectiveness investigation, current environmental policy implication on
socio-economic lives of the people and evaluation of how new policy adaptation will help
improving the environment specially in the Niger Delta state region. It also focuses on finding
justification for organizational ambiguities and conflicts related to the implementation of
Environmental Impact Assessment tool (EIA) as a part of policy reform by the Government. The
research question tries to find answer to the significant impacts of environmental policies on
socio-economic status of Niger people.
Past research papers and relevant information in this field is used for supporting the data
analysis and critical evaluation of the paper. Nigerian Maritime Oil and Gas Sector (NMOGS) is
the most developed sectors that holistically supports the economic growth in the country. As a
result of increased oil production, the environment is adversely affected and so is the lives of the
people specially in the Niger Delta state. To reduce the degree of adversities, the Government
has continuously been reforming the environmental policies. But their effectiveness is been
questioned by the people as policy reformation is creating negative impacts on their socio-
economic lives. The tool of qualitative analysis of secondary data sources is used in this paper to
have a more comprehensive discussion of the topic.
Enhanced evaluation and critical analysis on the area of discussion provides evidence to
the fact that environmental policies have direct relation to the various socio-economic progress

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indicators namely education, unemployment and healthcare. The policies are also quite
ineffective in supporting development of the nation. The untold hardships of the people have
increased as a result of ineffectiveness of the environmental policies specially the Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) tool was unable to meet development standards of the nation. There is
a major implementation gap in the policies and lack of community support and failure of cultural
diversity cognizance are the root cases of ineffectiveness of the polices in supporting socio-
economic growth of the nation. It is therefore, highly recommended that the Government should
decentralize environmental responsibilities and a proper timeline should be maintained to
achieve sustainability of the environmental polices.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY................................6
Introduction..................................................................................................................................6
Rationale and relevance of the thesis...........................................................................................7
Aims and objectives.....................................................................................................................9
Structure of the thesis paper.......................................................................................................10
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................................12
Introduction................................................................................................................................12
Tools and techniques for environmental policy assessment......................................................13
Environmental impacts appraisal- role of EIA..........................................................................14
Challenges faced by Nigerian strategies on environmental policies..........................................16
Policy theories support...............................................................................................................19
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY UNDERTAKEN FOR THE RESEARCH.............................21
Introduction................................................................................................................................21
Description of the area of case study.........................................................................................21
Evaluation of secondary sources of data....................................................................................23
Limitations of the study.............................................................................................................24
Ethical considerations................................................................................................................25
CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION..............................................................26
Introduction................................................................................................................................26
Historical know how of Oil and gas sector in Nigeria...............................................................27
Environmental impacts..............................................................................................................27
Comparison and evaluation of dual EIA system........................................................................29
Reasons for failure of EIA implementation...............................................................................31
An overall structure of education, unemployment and healthcare in Nigeria...........................32
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS...................................................35
Conclusion.................................................................................................................................35
Recommendations......................................................................................................................36
Future implications....................................................................................................................37
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................38

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LIST OF ACRONYMS
ACF Advocacy Coalition Framework
ACM Ambiguity Conflict Model
AI Administrative Implementation
DPR Department of Petroleum Resources
EI Experimental Implementation
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
ERA Environmental Rights Action
FEPA Federal Environmental Protection Agency
FERC Federal Energy Regulation Commission
FGN Federal Government of Nigeria
FMENV Federal Ministry of Environment
FMPR Federal Ministry of Petroleum Resources
GIAs Government Implementing-Agencies
IAIA International Association for Impact Assessment
IEA International Energy Agency
IMO International Maritime Organization
NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations
NES Nigerian Environmental Society
NESREA National Environmental Standards Regulations and Enforcement Agency
NIMASA Nigerian Maritime Administration and Safety Agency
NNPC Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation
NMOGS Nigerian Maritime Oil and Gas Sector
NOSCP Nation Oil Spill Contingency Plan
NOSDRA National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency
NPA Nigerian Port Authority
NPE National Policy on Environment
PPPs Policies, plans and programmes

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SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment
SERAC Social and Environmental Rights Action
SI Symbolic Implementation
SIA Social Impact Assessment
WAGP West African Gas Pipeline
WB World Bank
WMSN Waste Management Society of Nigeria

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Introduction
The paper is a critique on the Nigerian Environmental policies and their effectiveness on
socio-economic status of the Niger Delta state peoples. It is quite unfortunate that only in recent
times environmental concerns has gained momentum in Nigeria whereas other developed nations
across the world have already moved ahead (Kadafa 2012). Until the Federal Government’s
decrees there was no sound legal framework for sustainable environmental protection in the
country. The adversities of toxic waste disposal increased awareness for environmental
protection and the Federal Environmental Protection Agency, (FEPA) was enacted (Mohammed
2013). A number of environmental policy changes and new policy implementation has been
prominent in Nigeria by the Government till date, but the paper will focus on the evaluation and
review of EIA implementation in relation to Oil and Gas industries specially in the Delta state
region. EIA institutionalization has been done in 1990s with the aim of mitigating environmental
adversities by the help of a legal procedural implementation (Ite and Ibok 2013). The thesis
paper explores the effects of environmental policies in context of socio-economic development
of the nation with procedural problems in implementation of EIA. It also highlights the public
ambiguities and organizational conflicts resulting from policy implementation of EIA.
The study of the fundamental principles of the Nigerian environmental policy is highly
significant as it ensures a sustainable socioeconomic advancement based on effective
management of resources (Lompo and Trani 2013). In broader aspects, the paper addresses the
challenges on socio-economic development resulting from environmental policy implementation
by the Government. The government highly believes that the environmental contingencies can be
easily mitigated by the method of policy implementation and reformation but the regulatory

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system was given insufficient attention and as a result the desired effectiveness was not achieved
(Elenwo and Akankali 2014). And for developing country setting like Nigeria the
implementation procedure is embryonic and full of contradictions (Ihuah and Fortune 2013). The
next part of this chapter includes the research rationale, aims and objectives and structure of the
overall thesis paper.
Rationale and relevance of the thesis
The paper will mainly focus on EIA and its impacts on socio-economic status of the
people of the Niger Delta state region. The primary goal of EIA implementation is to address the
adversities caused by resource exploitation and extraction (Kadafa 2012). But in many cases EIA
also promotes sustainable development and acts as a management planning tool. However, EIA
is also criticized on the grounds of its mechanistic approach rather than humanitarian approach.
It fails to synchronize with everyday working policies because of its insufficient robust analytical
framework and most social science researchers claim this as the factor that decides upon its
success and failure at large (Obeng-Odoom 2014). Past studies were mainly based on
quantitative data analysis where end results were quite difficult to interpret because of statistical
complexities. Therefore, the research aims to focus on empirical evidences only collected from
secondary data sources. Evidences specific to oil and gas sector were evaluated and end results
were completely based on qualitative data analysis.
The high level of environmental pollution in regard to domestic lives in the Niger Delta
has given rise to civil unrest all over Nigeria (Onoja et al. 2013). It is quite significant that
maximum portion of the wealth of Nigeria comes from the oil activities in the Niger Delta and as
a result the people in the region are in conflict with the Federal Government on the issue of
petroleum resource control and also for their endangered life conditions as a result of oil

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exploitation (Onoja et al. 2013). The problems have doubled in the delta region due to lack of
social amenities and infrastructural support.
The environmental problems still persist and the reason is due to the fact that
environmental issues cannot be mitigated separately or in isolation from other socio-economic
issues (Oyedepo 2014). For sustainable development is not an individualistic approach rather it is
an integrative approach. Based on the current situations three major areas are considered here
which are also included as the main objectives of the paper. First, the EIA implementation
success in regard to NMOGS is evaluated. That is, to find the coherence of the key
implementation stages (mitigation, compliance monitoring and public participation) in lieu with
environmental impact assessment on socio-economic status of people (Onyechi et al. 2016).
Previous researches have only explored the extent to which EIA has been translated into reality
and practice but success of implementation in regard to socio-economic status remained
unexplored. Secondly, past research has only focused on two EIA and their overlapping issues,
where the reason for it has been less emphasized. As opined by Chindo (2015) requirement to
scrutinize the ad hoc state intervention in resolving EIA implementation challenges is necessary
along with exploration of various stakeholder’s viewpoints on the double EIA system operations.
Therefore, here the dynamic context of EIA implementation will be demonstrated and the
iterative relationship between National setting and practice of process implementation will be
evaluated. Third and the most important of all the impact of EIA on its own implementation
components are to be studied to have a better understanding of present environmental
management procedures in Government Implementing Agencies (GIA). Chuks-Ezike (2018) also
opined that this analysis will help in deciding upon policy success and failure. According to Idris
et al. (2013) the GIAs and the stakeholders will be more active in their approach and will work

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jointly so that environmental policies became more effective in supporting sustainable
development and improving socio-economic state of the Niger Delta.
In this regard, it is assumed that if the strictness in policy regulation is increased then
civil unrest may become less significant and environmental exploitation will also be reduced
considerably. Recommendations thus includes enhancement and refinement of the existing EIA
policy that will in turn enhance socio-economic growth of the nation. Nwofe (2013) rightly
opined that the outcomes will be greatly significant to various Governmental institutions and
learned societal classes in Nigeria.
Aims and objectives
Highlighting the above areas, the main aim of the research is to evaluate the policies and
strategies on the environmental policies in the Niger Delta state by the Nigerian Government.
The objectives of the paper are
1. To investigate the current environmental policies implemented in the Niger Delta through
their practice, compliance, monitoring and public participation steps, including their
effectiveness through political and socio-economic factors.
2. To identify the implication of the environmental policies on the socio-economic status
and the development of the environmental regulation within the oil and gas sector.
3. To examine, the reasons for and components of the organizational ambiguities and
conflicts associated with the implementation of NMOGS’s EIA systems, within an inter
and intra agency context.

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Structure of the thesis paper
In this paper the key research objectives mentioned in the previous section are addressed
holistically. The research thus carried out is segregated into five main chapters mentioned below.
Chapter 2, outlines the literature review on various environmental impacts of oil and gas
activities in the Delta state and the role of EIA as the policy tool has been reviewed along with
its other component part of Social Impact Assessment (SIA). The various constituting elements
of a good environmental management system are examined and EIA is evaluated based on them.
Challenges in policy implementation are also focused in this chapter. At the end of the chapter
critical analysis of the previous frameworks applied in EIA evaluation is discussed. It also
outlines the literature review on the need for various policy theories specially the areas of
ambiguity and conflict theorization. It will help in better understanding of EIA implementation
from national policy contexts (Matemilola and Elegbede 2017). Here mainly, the relationship
between theories of policy implementation and research evaluation are elucidated.
Chapter 3, emphasizes on the methodology undertaken for the research. Data collection
methods are presented and their analysis methods are also mentioned. A clear description of the
study area, challenges faced, limitations of the study, reliability and validity and techniques
adopted for increasing effectiveness of the study are mentioned.
Chapter 4, outlines the discussion on National context and National system of EIA in
Nigeria. Historical development of the oil and gas industry in Nigeria is discussed along with
socio-economic impact assessment. The legal framework of EIA in NMOGS focused on DPR
and Federal Ministry of Environment system is also discussed. The role of GIA in EIA
implementation is also analyzed here. It uncovers the successes or failures of the EIA
implementation in terms of achievements recorded since the operational activeness of EIA. It

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further examines the context to which previous EIA reports have been supported in reality
through its component engagement of mitigation, compliance monitoring and public
participation and also provides an assessment of the EIA effectiveness in terms of political and
socio-economic factors. This will enhance understanding of the coherency of the EIA framework
and will also examine how the reformed integrated approach is able to address the perceived
environmental challenges and difficulties (Elum, Mopipi and Henri-Ukoha 2016). The
theoretical frameworks from chapter 3 are used to examine the similarities and differences
between the two EPA systems of DPR and FMENV and their influence level in implementation
is studied. The reason of double EIA system is also mentioned here. Sectoral conflicts in context
to inter-agency is analyzed and discussion of various strategies adopted to mitigate the issue is
discussed. Stakeholders’ reviews were also analyzed to identify the most robust system.
Chapter 5 concludes the thesis by enhancing knowledge contribution. A summary of the
empirical results is made and recommendations are made based on the end results which widens
hope for further research in environmental policies in Nigeria.

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Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
It is quite evident that every time there is mention of environmental issues in Nigeria the
first thing that comes to one’s mind is the oil and gas industries because a significant portion of
Nigerian economy is comprised of oil and gas sector and is one of the major causal agents for
environmental pollution in the country (Adati 2012). Almost 90% of the nation’s revenue is been
accounted by the oil and gas industry (Agbiboa 2013). In spite of huge oil earnings Nigeria is
still a poor country in terms of socio-economic development and human life sustainability. This
in turn has created some overwhelming environmental challenges in Nigeria and in-spite of
continuous reforms in the EIA policies the Niger Delta region is the most affected where most oil
is produced (Adekola, Mitchell and Grainger 2015). Policy has only been reformed and upgraded
as environmental strategies are significantly cognizant with the oil and gas industrial activities
and development in this sector has been noteworthy over years (Adesola and Jennings 2016).
The famous ‘resource curse’ doctrine is well fitted in this regard where abundance of natural
resources has made the government lazy and poor in focusing human developmental conditions
of the people (Kayode, Arome and Silas 2014). The increased rate of development of the
country’s economy in terms of revenue generation from oil and gas industries is quite significant
in recent years and the adversity of this development on environmental sustainability has also
been one of the major concerns of present times (Ajayi and Adesote 2013). The situation has
improved gradually where more strict environmental regulations have been developed in
consideration to oil and gas sector but the hardships of the delta people increased and marine life
is still under threat (Ajayi 2014). A number of environmental resolutions were taken into
consideration and zero flare emission was one of them (Ako 2013). But in-spite of such vigorous

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policy reformations delta state is continuing to be one of the largest sources of flared natural gas
in the world (Akpan, Ering and Olofu-Adeoye 2013). The development and the evolution of the
various environmental laws and regulations in the country along with oil and gas industry
strategies is divided into three major generations namely the first pioneer generation, the second
generation and the third emerging generation (Elenwo and Akankali 2014). The first-generation
era started with the passing of the Mineral Oils (Safety) Regulation Act and ends with the
enactment of the Federal Environmental Protection Agency Decree (Albert, Amaratunga and
Haigh 2018). The second generation is marked by the extended laws and regulatory frameworks
of environmental management. The focus of this era is on global emerging environmental
principles and strategies (Ite and Ibok 2013). The third generation is an upgraded version of the
extended laws and regulations which were matured by the adaptation of the Nigerian Law and
supported by the fully implemented Local Content Act (LCA) and Petroleum Industry Bill (PIB).
Tools and techniques for environmental policy assessment
In order to support effective policy utilization there is focus on the publication of on-time
and up-to-dated environmental data and dissemination of the same is supported. In addition to all
these prior environmental impact assessments is also considered that will reduce the scope of
adverse impacts and a number of environmental key instruments like EIA, EMP, EER, BLS, EA,
ESI, PIA and Clean up and Remediation were formed based on the assessment results (Muzan
2014). Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) help in better environmental impact study in
terms of socio-economic growth, cultural impacts and human health considerations. According
to Ikechukwu (2012) the Environment Management Plan (EMP) will help in effective
identification of key issues related to environment and provide best strategies and plans for their
management. Elenwo and Akankali (2014) has rightly opined that Environmental Energy

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Resources (EER) help in measuring the exact energy consideration of the resource and this will
help in finding out the gap in between the actual and desired level of energy requirement. Bureau
of Labor Statistics (BLS) will help in effective utilization of manpower in resource management
and will increase production efficiency (Uzochukwu et al. 2015). Environmental Assessment
(EA) will help in finding the best alternative for protection of the environment from ill-hazards.
Nyirenda and Ngwakwe (2014) rightly mentioned that the Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI)
will provide a measure of the degree of harm caused to the environment by the various adverse
industrial impacts and concerned factors. Post Impact Assessment (PIA) gives a picture of the
effectiveness of the policy after its implementation and shows the measure of its effectiveness in
a positive or negative manner (Ihuah and Fortune 2013). If PIA result is not as desired then
alternatives are again considered.
Environmental impacts appraisal- role of EIA
The offshore oil and gas activities in Nigeria have created major environmental issues
that have contributed directly to the socio-economic challenges. Oil extraction in the Niger delta
region has caused considerable environmental degradation in terms of oil spill legacy, endemic
gas flaring, improper environmental regulations and military regime government complexities
(Zhang and Shi 2016). The paradox of plenty has supported the ‘curse of oil’ and the
environmental impacts are only widening the adversities (Onah and Govender 2014). Around
1000 oil spills occur every year which are been reduced to 300 in official statements (Innocent,
Uche and Uche 2014).
Though it is also true that the issues of policy standardization in environmental protection is not
new to African countries. The challenges in policy regulation was prevalent from the past and is
still continuing. The Environmental policies of Nigeria are based on the 1999 Constitution of the

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federal Republic of Nigeria (Kayode, Arome and Silas 2014). As per section 20 of the
constitution the state is empowered to protect and improve the environment by safeguarding
water, air, forest, land and wildlife (Elum, Mopipi and Henri-Ukoha 2016). Since past times,
environmental policies are been constantly ungraded and a number of bi-lateral and multi-lateral
treaties have been signed. The EIA Act was enacted by the State Government in the year 1992
with the primary goal of achieving sustainable development (Kayode, Arome and Silas 2014).
The EIA Act clearly mentioned that the various public and private sectors of the Nigerian
economy cannot undertake of authorize any kind of project on their own without prior
consideration being made of environmental effects. The objectives of EIA are impact avoidance,
public involvement, intergovernmental coordination, and agency accountability to the public
(Elum, Mopipi and Henri-Ukoha 2016). To be more general, the EIA process ranges from
alternative consideration to screening, scoping and review of the EIA report, decision-making
and monitoring (Ezeh et al. 2014). A number of other establishments having separate legislation
for environment management includes Department of Petroleum (DPR), Federal Ministry of
Environment (FMENV), State Ministries of Environment (SMENV) and National Oil Spill
Detection Response Agency (NOSDRA) and Nigerian Maritime Administration Safety Agency
(NIMASA) (Ezeh et al. 2014).
From global perspectives, it is quite evident that a number of policies have been
implemented worldwide to support environmental management which are operating in full pace.
Most of them are consistent with the horizontal integration measure of the sixth Environmental
Action Programme and includes Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA), Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) and Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM). EIA is the most
popular and effective measure for environmental impact assessment prevalent globally. It

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provides a number of stakeholders’ engagement mechanisms in environmental policy
implementation. The Clean Energy Bill in recent times seeks to create a legislative framework
for promotion of environmental engineering it has not been effective in mitigating the
environmental concerns at large. But overall, a significant development in the environmental
policies and regulations is visible in recent times and Nigeria being a member of the
International Maritime Organization (IMO) is a proof of it. Maximum IMO environmental
concerns have been ratified by Nigeria and the DPR and the FMENV work holistically in
running a concurrent EIA system.
The environmental pollution issue resulting from carbon emission has been one of the
major reasons of global warming and the International Energy Agency has opined that Nigeria
loses a significant portion of its revenue in gas flaring and this is creating issues in welfare of
people and health issues are increasing and life expectancy is decreasing considerably (Nwofe
2013). In consideration to unemployment in the country it is quite evident that impacts of Carbon
dioxide production resulting from oil and gas sector will greatly affect the unemployment
situation where if focus on alternative renewable energy sources is given, oil production will
decrease and most people will lose their employment (Elum, Mopipi and Henri-Ukoha 2016). As
a result, poverty and unemployment will become prominent. In this regard it is better to be
cautious before hand as prevention is always better than cure. Therefore, the EIA component,
SIA and monitoring system need to be emphasized here. SIA examines how a project impacts the
quality of lives of people in a particular region. The developmental retrogression linked to oil
and gas natural resources as opined by a number of political scientists, blame poor governance
and bad macro-economic policies of crowding out local oil producers and is referred to as the

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‘Dutch Disease’(Adati 2012). Rent-based economies free the economy from societal control and
this results in significant hampering of the rights of the citizens.
Challenges faced by Nigerian strategies on environmental policies
The environmental strategic issues have been sidelined in the National policy formulation
board in the country. Till now the oil and gas industries are not successful in implementing a
holistic strategic development plan for oil and gas (Nzeadibe et al. 2015). Moreover, the National
oil spill contingency plan by NOSDRA (National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency) still
lacks a detailed plan blue print of various aspects of the oil and gas industries (Zabbey, Sam and
Onyebuchi 2017). It was assumed that after DPR, the Federal Environment Protection Agency
(FEPA) under the Federal Government will be the most effective one but it has been one that
shows high level of insignificance due to bureaucratic bottlenecks and inefficient environmental
legislation enforcement (Obeng-Odoom 2014). Then National Environmental Standards
Regulatory and Enforcement Agencies (NESREA) was formed and both NESREA and
NOSDRA together ensured that the environmental policies and strategies are not only enriched
but also has become much effective over the past years. But the major challenges faced by the
agencies include poor staff structure, ill-equipment support and unfunded financials
(Omamuyovwi and Akpomuvire 2017). This created major hindrances in transforming the
theoretical policies in real life practical activities. In order to safeguard the most adversely
affected marine ecology the Nigeria Maritime Administration and Safety Academy (NIMASA)
also mandated the marine environment protection strategies (Onoja et al. 2013). However, the
major challenges are in areas of socio-economic development, scientific aspects and cultural
frontiers. Some major challenges include overlapping of authorities, inadequate access to

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environmental information, bureaucratic obstacles and non-existence of a well-defined and
professional regulatory body for environmental policy protection (Onyechi et al. 2016). The EIA
authority overlapping in between ministry and agencies has serious management issues and also
there is mismatch of opinions in policy enforcement issues. The two role conflicts of EIA are
ultimately catalyzing the environment to suffer. Cost burden is gradually increasing and policy
implementation challenge is becoming more prominent leading to lower standards of living
(Ordinioha and Brisibe 2013). The stakeholders in most of the times ignoring the environmental
concerns in their oil and gas industries and the Delta region is the most badly affected due to
poor access to information on environmental pollution. The oil and gas industry stakeholders are
not cooperating in environmental policy implementation either (Yakubu 2017). The bureaucratic
obstacles include delay in release of funds for governmental environment projects and this is
compounding the ecological issues further (Osin, Yu and Lin 2017). Hydrocarbon pollutants are
causing the deadliest hazards and slowly degrading the environment causing long range
adversities (Umejesi and Thompson 2015). The end results lead to crop cultivation issues and
serious chemical contamination due to oil spills is causing heavy damage to crops and repeated
clean up attempts are all in vain (Oyedepo 2014). Moreover, the cost to implementation of the
various environmental instruments like EIA is quite higher and this bottleneck is causing huge
environmental bills which is not good for overall Nigerian economy and thus the effort is
neglected at large (Ushie 2013). The non-existence of a well framed environmental regulatory
body is also slowing down the evolution of the policies and management practices in Nigeria
(Raji and Abejide 2013). Lack of environmental curriculum in higher education has also
accelerated the problem of non-existence of a proper regulatory body as related people in this
field are not expert in environmental studies to take part in the regulatory body decisions (Reij,

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Scoones and Toulmin 2013). Some other noteworthy challenges include lack of environmental
education and awareness, equipment dearth, higher logistics cost, poor actualization of strategies,
poor manpower training, inadequate manpower supply, poor environmental researches and last
but not the least insufficient research result documentations (Sam, Coulon and Prpich 2017).
Policy theories support
The advocation of the policy implementation theories will help in better understanding of
the national policy context (Osment 2014). In this connection, Richard Matland’s ambiguity and
conflict theory of policy implementation will be mainly focused. Evaluation research is
developed on evidence-based actions where practical problems are addressed and the actual
worth of the policy is identified and judged (Elum, Mopipi and Henri-Ukoha 2016). A number of
policy implementation theories are found for evidence-based research among them here four
theories are considered those are top-down and bottom-up approach, learning implementation
theory, process of multi-level bargaining and ambiguity conflict model or contingency leading
theory (Aikens, McKenzie and Vaughter 2016). The top-down theory emphasizes command,
control, and uniformity and fails to take into account the diversity inherent in much
implementation that occurs (Ezeh et al. 2014). It fails to define what program goals are and as
such it is difficult to set a benchmark for program success or failure (Raji and Abejide 2013).
The Bottom up approach or the approach of backward mapping recognizes the ambiguity of
goals. But the problem is neither the top-down nor bottom-up model appear entirely appropriate
in describing the implementation process when there is substantial conflict and an ambiguous
policy. Bandura’s social learning is related to solving of social problems (Reij, Scoones and
Toulmin 2013). Mutual action engagement is the main underlying concept. Action, reflection,
communication and negotiation are the major factors in social learning (Ezeh et al. 2014). The

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Advocacy Coalition Framework (ACF) supports social learning theories and it enables
understanding of the true magnitude of policy disputes (Umejesi and Thompson 2015). The
major assumption of the multi-level bargaining approach is that organizations operate in a multi-
faceted relationship system and thus there is high provision of bargaining (Adu, Adelabu and
Adjogri 2014). It is supported by institutional theory where legal aspects are examined in regard
to legal power, procedural rules, government institutions and other policies (Reij, Scoones and
Toulmin 2013). The contingency concept is a cumulation of various theories mentioned above
and is baaed on integrative work principle. In this context, the policy ambiguity seems to be
complex though it can be of ambiguity of goals (statutory) or means (resources) (Obeng-Odoom
2014). The Ambiguity-Conflict Model covers four conditional relationships namely
administrative implementation, political implementation, experimental implementation and
symbolic implementation (Elum, Mopipi and Henri-Ukoha 2016).
So, it is quite clear that conflicts and ambiguities revolve around social values and also on
the level of compliance and political and administrative implementation. Hence, it will best suit
for the evaluation of the various policy issues in relation to EIA implementation national context
in the country. It encompasses both informational relationships between policy makers and other
political, social, economic and institutional factors in relation to environmental policies (Obeng-
Odoom 2014).

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CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY UNDERTAKEN FOR THE RESEARCH
Introduction
In the previous chapter the various application areas of policy implementation theories
are demonstrated and finally Matland’s Ambiguity-conflict model has been considered for
application in the process of evaluation of EIA policy implementation. In line with the choice,
this chapter demonstrates the data collection and analysis tools and techniques used for
evaluation of relevant information. This chapter forms the basic backbone of the empirical
chapters that follows afterwards and will help in providing deeper insights into the various
current contextual issues that are not highlighted in the various policy implementation theories.
The chapter is basically divided into four sub sections where first the Nigerian region
selected for study is outlined and then various secondary sources sued for the study were
revealed. How the secondary sources were combined with various theoretical bases in
developing the research design is also highlighted. Mainly qualitative data analysis tool was used
and descriptive analysis is done.
Description of the area of case study
The country Nigeria shares land borders with the Republic of Cameroon in the East, the
Benin Republic in the West and the Republic of Niger and Chad in the North (Anaduaka 2014).
As per geographical statistics Nigeria has a total area of about 923 768 sq. km (Williams and

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Chesterman 2014). Abundancy of natural resources is quite high specially oil and gas. It has
previously been mentioned that oil and gas constitute almost 90% of the country’s economy. To
be more specific, oil and gas sector accounts for 90-95% of export revenues, over 90% of foreign
exchange earnings and about 80% of government revenue (Jamshed 2014). The study is
restricted to the Niger Delta state which is the delta region of the Niger River having direct
connection to Gulf of Guinea on the Atlantic Ocean (Chidiebere, Iloanya and Udunze 2014). The
region is very densely populated and is at times referred to as the Oil Rivers (Smith 2015). This
is a petroleum rich region and is the store house of various international controversies in regard
to environmental pollution (Nwankwo and Ifejiofor 2014). The Delta region is now been
officially defined by the Nigerian Government and make up almost 7.5% of the total land mass
in Nigeria (Walliman 2017). A number of states like Abia, Cross River State, Edo, Imo, Ondo,
etc. are there in Niger Delta region (Anyika 2014). Almost 40 ethnic groups having 250 different
dialects reside in this region. The main occupation of the people is fishing and agriculture
(Walliman 2017). The oil exploration activities have reduced the agricultural practices in the
region and fisheries is also under threat due to increase oil spilling into river beds (Onah and
Govender 2014. Moreover, the recent armed conflicts are on rise based on the long-held
concerns of the loss of control of the natural resources to various oil companies (Kayode, Arome
and Silas 2014). The Ijaw people mainly revolted against the Government and even used militant
forces to intensify the protest (Bell, Bryman and Harley 2018). Foreign enterprises like Shell
were taken hostage by outraged local indigenous people there. Governmental intervention sin the
region increased as a result and mobilization of Nigerian Army and State Security Services have
been amplified (Afolabi 2015). Chinese expansion is also been restricted (McCusker and
Gunaydin 2015). Recent development initiatives undertaken includes Niger Delta Development

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Commission (NDDC) formation and DEVIN. However, the ‘oil war’ is under control in recent
times and the Government has promised the people to provide rehabilitation programs,
presidential pardon and quality education in exchange of weapon surrender (Hammersley 2015).
Keeping this specific issue in mind the Peripheral Realism Theory of research methodology,
evaluating the nation-wide differences in the environmental policies and conflicted relationships
among Nigerian states is considered for the paper.
Evaluation of secondary sources of data
Qualitative research methods are the most appropriate for case study analysis and support
of wide range of secondary sources of information increases the reliability and validity of
research findings (Quinlan et al. 2019). Secondary data help in better addressing of the setting
and background context of the research (Choy 2014). Basically, Environmental policy
documents from Government official sites and previous EIA reports have been studied
extensively to support the research objectives. However, other sources such as e-books, journals,
peer-reviewed articles and also edited books are used for data collection. Published literatures on
EIA implementation tools and techniques are also concerned. Larger part of the secondary
research papers is collected from University of Birmingham; Maritime University Malmo,
Sweden; and the International Maritime Organization in London. A number of information is
collected from the country itself that includes documents from Federal Ministry Environment;
National Environmental Standards Regulations and Enforcement Agency (NESREA); University
of Nigeria; Basel Convention Coordinating Centre in University of Ibadan; Nigeria Institute of
Social and Economic Research, Ibadan; and Environmental Rights Action, Niger Delta state
(Alvesson and Sköldberg 2017). Apart from them other policy documents on Environment
policies; National Oil Spill Contingency Plan; Environmental Guidelines and Standards for the

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Petroleum Industry in Nigeria are also considered for data collection. Information from internet
and Nigerian newspapers are also included (Neuman and Robson 2014). All secondary source
materials are used to review the EIA implementation process and various issues of it in relation
to environmental management system from various national and international contexts.
The findings collected from secondary sources are used as theoretical insights in
reviewing contributions of chapter 1 and 2 and helped in framing of the interview questions.
Both inductive and deductive paradigm is used for analysis (Collis and Hussey 2013). For
instance, challenges in regard to EIA implementation in NMOGS are explored to identify the
real reason of failure of implementation in the sector excluding the presumed issue of ambiguity
and conflict (Flick 2015). The reason of impracticability of the EIA translation is also understood
with focus to its dual framework. Institutional and agency contradictions were also highlighted.
And finally, how EIA has impacted the socio-economic lives of the people is also studied. Also,
the total time taken for completion of the research is 10 weeks which is quite short research span
for this vast topic of consideration. As governmental policies are directly linked to the research
results so the result inference process is slowed down because it is almost impossible to
implement a new environmental policy in a day (Denzin 2017). Lot of considerations are looked
upon to finally decide upon the policy that best support overall development of the nation
(Bulmer 2017).
Limitations of the study
Due to limited time for the research the result findings may not be the exact and true
representation of the proposed study considered (Shabani Varaki, Floden and Javidi
Kalatehjafarabadi 2015). The evaluation of the various environmental policies and laws could
have required longer time for study as Government takes longer time in implementation of the

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laws and orders in the country (Harland 2014). There will be a lack of control study in
manipulating existing and new policies for comparative study purpose. Also, the limited time
availability for the study has resulted in the consideration of a much smaller data sample instead
of the proposed large sample previously considered for the study (Reinharz 2017). And the result
is the deduction of inconclusive findings that are not suitable for exact replication and reliability
has thus reduced to a great extent (Stacks and Salwen 2014). But still the results will provide a
direction of the research work on how government environmental policies are actually affecting
the socio-economic life of the people in the Delta region of Nigeria (Saunders and Bezzina
2015). And some sources provided general statement approach for providing feedback and so the
variation in actual results was quite significant (Barnham 2015). And in consideration to
secondary sources it is difficult to find most recent data for all aspects as limited research as
carried on this prospect. But most recent data are collected to the extent available and are
analyzed to have the best results and find the actual stand of the impact of the environmental
policies on the socio-economic lives of the Nigerian people (Scheurich 2014).
Ethical considerations
The research is carried out with prior permission from the environmental authorities and
governing bodies (Pietkiewicz and Smith 2014). (Attia and Edge 2017). The research also
ensures the follow of ethical codes of conduct of research (Marshall and Rossman 2014). A
clearance permission is also granted from the Nigerian Petroleum and Mining Department before
conducting the survey work based on secondary research data. No organization’s interest and
reputation are harmed during the study (Thomson and McLeod 2015).

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CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
Introduction
Data analysis started with a more inductive approach and then a deductive approach is
adopted. Actually, there is a paradigm of approach of both inductive and deductive and no exact
line of demarcation can be drawn I between them in a research paper (Taylor, Bogdan and
DeVault 2015). Through inductive approach the various themes, patterns, sets and categories of
data set are structured and then deductive approach is adopted to analyze them as per
requirement (Kumar 2019). Analysis, reporting and narration of qualitative data can be done in
many ways like linear analytical structure, comparative structure, chronological structure, case
studies analysis structure and theory building structure (Silverman 2016). It is obvious that case
study analysis structure supported by descriptive statistics is adopted here and data is broken
down into smaller units to categorize them as per requirement areas. Mostly, interpretative
qualitative data sources are used for the paper (Mackey and Gass 2015). To enhance the degree
of data interpretation the narrative approach is used where stories, relationships, experiences and
feelings shared in past papers are used here as well. Project evaluation is a key to good
implementation, keeping this in mind, the paper tries to provide suggestions for improvement in
future.

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The National Context and National system of EIA is focused next and evaluation of the
National EIA system is discussed. Historical development of oil and gas sector in Nigeria is
explained along with the impact assessment of their activities on environment. This will help in
clear understanding of the why and how of sector’s EIA enactment. The legal framework of
NMOGS’s EIA is also identified to compare the relative policy effectiveness. The chapter is
subdivided into five main sections where first historical development of the oil and gas sector is
studied, then environmental impacts are studied based on socio-economic parameters of human
health and well-being. Then NMOGS’s EIA is reviewed from structural considerations and the
most effective style of implementation is decided upon. Finally, an outlook of the socio-
economic lives of the people is summarized to prove the degree of importance EIA
implementation should be given.
Historical know how of Oil and gas sector in Nigeria
Foreign investment in oil and gas sector in Nigeria has started long back in the early
twentieth century when the European state authority has first recognized the value of oil as an
important source of energy (Wiek and Lang 2016). The Anglo Dutch consortium Shell D’Arcy
first carried out exploratory drillings in the country and started their crude oil shipments.
Gradually, pipeline system was installed and international oil export was further facilitated
(Anney 2014). Shell’s achievement drew other multinational oil companies to Nigeria and oil
business gradually flourished in the nation. Presently, there are 606 oil fields in Nigeria, of which
355 are onshore, and 251 offshore (Isaacs 2014). Maximum pipeline is present in the delta state
region and so the level of pollution is also higher.

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Environmental impacts
It has been mentioned earlier that Nigeria has long history of oil exploration and oil
exploitation. According to Atubi (2015), the major feature of the pre-1988 period was the lack of
public awareness on environmental protection and development. Issues on conservation,
biodiversity, pollution check, effluent limitations, and sustainable development were not core
discussion parts of general public disclosure and Nigeran Government also realized the
importance of environment on national development lately (Ben-Iwo, Manovic and Longhurst
2016). As a result, the Decrees and regulations were given full authority to issue/permit licenses,
establish guidelines, standards and procedures and support environmental control (Ekhator
2014). The Environmental Guidelines and Standards were established with the major objective
of environmental quality control, monitoring program planning, pollution documentation and
standardization of abatement guidelines (Elum, Mopipi and Henri-Ukoha 2016). Though quality
standard development needs were detailed but accurate ecological data are not available in
considerable amount in secondary data sources that need to be included in present literatures
(Ihuah and Fortune 2013). According to Ikechukwu (2012), it is really difficult to develop a set
of well framed laws and regulations in regard to Nigerian environmental concerns.
The environmental challenges have resulted in a number of political, social and economic
problem areas in the Nation. The various service operators of the sector are criticized for not
taking immediate action in mitigating various environmental issues and were also criticized for
not supporting social causes to commensurate the damage they have caused to the environment
as well as to the local habitat of the people in the Niger Delta region (Brannen 2017). One of the
major issues of environmental exploitation is the lack of basic infrastructure and development
amenities. Improvements are required in areas of portable drinking water supply, electricity

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providence, improved transportation facilities specially roadways, and enhanced communication
networking as well (Tuck and McKenzie 2014). These are directly or indirectly related to the
sustainable growth of the nation. For example, if water supply is not improved sanitation and
health improvement will not improve. High population density is also responsible for inadequate
infrastructural improvements (Krippendorff 2018). But investment in infrastructure will support
socio-economic growth considerably. A very small portion of the oil revenue (only 3%) is
provided to the oil producing states like Niger Delta and this is the reason of partial working of
the amnesty in regard to EIA implementation (Patten and Newhart 2017). The rising negative
impacts has increased the importance of reviewing the NMOGS’s EIA and for this structural
knowhow of the EIA is important.
Comparison and evaluation of dual EIA system
The DPR EIA and the FMENV EIA are based on World Bank Guidelines and but both do
not incorporate SIA in them which is a major component of World Bank EIA (Odeh and Okoye
2014). The FMENV EIA is a more comprehensive structure that includes mitigation, compliance
monitoring and public participation at large (Grossoehme 2014). But both EIA’s are directly
relevant to NMOGS and have different environmental connotations. The DPR EIA system is
focused only on oil and gas sector whereas FMENV EIA covers all ministries and agency
projects that includes oil and gas as well (Uzochukwu et al. 2015). Thus, it is important for the
proponents to comply with the procedures of both and NMOGS’s consultants are well versed
with these procedural guidelines (Fox and Alldred 2015). Now the obvious question that arises is
that, why FMENV EIA procedure has not replaced DPR EIA procedure? The ultimate result is a
conflicting situation which gives rise to inter-agency contexts. The FMENV EIA is a system that
gives full recognition to public participation in theory but in practical there is low level of

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cooperation among the Federal ministries and the State (Singh 2015). The state ministries are
demanding their own EIA system and thus a gap is there in between what is actually desired and
what is received in return in EIA implementation (Erhabor and Don 2016). The various GIAs
like Department of Petroleum Resources, Federal Ministry of Environment, and Nigerian
Maritime Administration and Safety Agency plays key roles in execution and interpretation of
EIA implementation in the country (Kothari 2017). DPR acts as the forefront in addressing
environmental issues in NMOGS and is based on country wide legislations and Petroleum Act of
1969 (Gabriel 2015). Constant improvement has led to the enactment of Environmental
Guidelines and Standards for the Petroleum Industry in Nigeria in 1991; a fully-fledged Ministry
of Environment in 1999 and the establishment of Petroleum Technology Development Fund
(PTDF) in 2000 to support manpower development in the Nigerian oil and gas sector (Hickson
2016). On the other hand, the FEMNV is responsible for formulating and implementing the
various environmental regulations in Nigeria that also includes EIA (Azuh, Fayomi and Yartey
Ajayi 2015). The FEMNV carries out oil and gas related EIA evaluation through its Department
of Environmental Assessment, Oil and Gas Division (Ogundari and Abdulai 2014). It has two
subsidiary executive agencies, NESREA and NOSDRA. NESREA focuses on the nation-wide
enforcement of environmental laws, guidelines, policies, standards and regulations (Hollway
2018). NOSDRA puts in place various measures towards achieving effective EIA in the oil
industry. Both State-level Ministries and local authorities operate under FMENV (Beyeler, Liu
and Sieverding 2015). Beyond EIA, FEMNV works in achieving the NPE goals of achieving
sustainable development (Richey and Klein 2014). Various environmental principles in this
respect includes precautionary, intergenerational, polluter pays and intra-generational equity
principles (Onwujekwe et al. 2014). Not the question rises whether EIA is fulfilling

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environmental potential or is just a wastage? Well, the area is a little contradictory. In this regard
the evaluation of the various tools of implementation like monitoring and compliance is
necessary. Though there is no such protocol that will ensure cent percent success (Bosah 2013).
In most cases implementation fails due to technical issues, which occurs because of
misunderstandings and lack of effective strategies for monitoring and control (Oyelola et al.
2014).
According to James and Madaki (2014), the country Nigeria is committed to a nationally
acclaimed environmental policy that ensures sustainable development based on fair
environmental management. And in order to achieve this a positive and realistic planning is
needed that will balance human needs and environmental carrying capacity (Lompo and Trani
2013). And for this a number of complementary policies were considered that include integration
of environmental concerns into national economic decision-making processes, remediation cost
of environmental concerns builds on development projects, application of environment friendly
technological tools and mandatory carrying out of Environmental Impact Assessment in
preliminary stages of every project development (Kadafa 2012). The annual general meeting of
the Bar Association of 2010 focused on local contents (Lompo and Trani 2013). This will help
the Federal Government in upgrading the manpower capacity that will improve both government
policies and will help the country have better economies of scale (Matemilola and Elegbede
2017). The Nigeria Oil and Gas Industry Content Development Act of 2010 increased native
Nigerian participation in oil and gas industries and also in other service sectors as well. As a
result, financial, legal and insurance service sectors flourished and oil and gas industrial
dependence for higher economies of scale became less important (Agwu 2018). Secondary

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evidences support the fact that most recent projects are been registered for EIA as per sectoral
requirements (Mohammed 2013).
Reasons for failure of EIA implementation
EIA failed in most cases because of its long-term plans and lack of public participation. It
is argued that effective communication and public participation will enhance meeting up of the
social goals more effectively (Olotu, Salami and Akeremale 2015). This can be done by
educating the people, increasing their self-awareness, focusing on public value system,
supporting humanistic decision-making, fostering trusts, reducing conflicts and focusing on cost-
effective decision-making as well (Fafunwa 2018). The West African Gas Pipeline and the Tank
Farm project are evidences of EIA failure in context of multinational partnerships. Lack of
compliance was mentioned to the main cause of failure of these intra-agency projects (Lawal
2014). Moreover, the twin truck policy of two EIA has created increased ambiguities and
conflicts among various agencies both national and international. Stakeholders expectation in
terms of outcome certainties, cost effectiveness, delay minimizing, adherence to timelines, right
to know, informed and heard, avoidance of unnecessary information providence and succinct
manageable documentation should be prioritized to reduce conflict of interests which ultimately
lead to failure of effective EIA implementation (Asiyai 2015).
An overall structure of education, unemployment and healthcare in Nigeria
The National budget allocated for Educational sector in Nigeria is only 6% of the total
budget which is much lesser than the one (26%) recommended by UNESCO (Ahmed 2015).
Around 10.5 million students are out of school in Nigeria because of poor social conditions
(Maina 2014). Statistics show that 61% of the total 168 million population in Nigeria are
illiterate and10 million youth cannot even read and write (Antoninis 2014). The oil-price induced

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fiscal crisis in Nigeria has affected the outbound student mobility in terms of education (Ewetan
and Ese 2014). According to UNESCO Institute of Statistics data Nigerian students in abroad has
increased by 164% during the yearly range of 2005-2015 (Ogundari and Abdulai 2014). Nearly
40% of Nigerian overseas students rely on scholarships and this is widening the fiscal deficit in
the country and foreign exchange rate of Naira is decreasing gradually (Rolleston and Adefeso-
Olateju 2014). In Nigeria 2 in 3 children have no access to early childhood education and out of
total children around 51% of them are engaged in child labor and the reason being the socio-
economic disparity in the country (Hoechner 2014). State fund allocation is not sufficient to
impart quality education to all children and no Educational Programme like Alma Jiri is able to
support education to the poor and abandoned children (Oye, Iahad and Rahim 2014). The
educational structure of Nigeria can be broadly divided into three sections of basic education,
post-basic education and tertiary education. According to National Policy of Education 2004,
basic education comprises of 9 years where elementary schooling is of 6 years and junior
secondary education is of 3 years (Moses et al. 2016). Senior secondary education is of 3 years
and tertiary education can be of 4 or 6 years based on the study program (Lawal 2014). Tertiary
sector has both university and non-university sector and offers opportunities for graduates,
undergraduates, postgraduates, vocational and technical education (Anyanwu 2014). The country
has a total of only 35% employment that includes labor class employment as well (Oduwole
2015). Rate of unemployment in the Niger delta is sharply rising in comparison to other states.
Current unemployment rate is 23.1% as per 2018 statistics (Akeju and Olanipekun 2014).
Previously the agricultural sector was responsible for providing employment in Nigeria but in
recent times the agricultural sector is also not able to provide employment opportunities because
oil exploitation has adversely impacted the agricultural sector as well (Ogbimi 2015). Oil spills

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and waste disposal into rivers and open lands are creating problems for plantation and crop
cultivation because of chemical intoxication from oil and gas industries. Also, the wake of oil
discovery and improvement of oil sector has considerably reduced the employment capacity in
the country (Odeh and Okoye 2014). Past evidences show that the perceived poverty rate in
Nigeria is 74.8% much higher than the actual rate of 51.1%, which implies that people have the
intense feeling that they could do better than Government if they are given back their own oil
wealth. Fishing and mining were at one time very successful businesses in Nigeria but recent oil
spills and environmental exploitations have caused the aquatic eco-system to suffer and as a
result fishing trade suffered greatly (Nyirenda and Ngwakwe 2014). Same is the case with
mining where environmental balance is being scrutinized and time has finally come to save the
land areas from mining and quarrying exploitations (Akintoye and Opeyemi 2014). The
increased environmental exploitation in the name of oil and gas industries is also creating higher
health issues among the common people specially among working class people. Occupational
health hazards arising out of oil and mining industries are creating a number of health hazards
among the working-class people in the country (Onah and Govender 2014). But maximum health
care funding is to be made out of pocket as the Government has limited funding allocation for
healthcare. Maximum budget goes to environmental policy and reformations (Kayode, Arome
and Silas 2014). Health care market in Nigeria is stuck in in a vicious cycle of low and
unpredictable demand, inadequate investments and low and uncertain supply quality (Innocent,
Uche and Uche 2014). In Nigeria the health care spending per citizen is only $6 (Nyirenda and
Ngwakwe 2014). Nigeria is far behind the report on degree of health care need responsiveness
(Kayode, Arome and Silas 2014). About 2300 children die daily due to insufficient care
providence. Nigeria spends only 6.5% of its total Government expenditure on healthcare which

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is supposed to be around 15% (Tende 2014). The oil companies knowing the impact of
occupational health issues remained unaffected by the rising demands of a well-integrated health
administration system by their workers. Factory legislation is poorly enforced and as a result
there is poor accident reporting and occupational diseases remains unnoticed (Akhuemonkhan,
Raim and Dada 2014).
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusion
Thus, to conclude the paper it could be said that Nigeria is trying its level best to meet the
demand gap in between the actual and the desired in terms of environmental policy effects on
socio-economic lives of the people in the country (Gillingham, Rapson and Wagner 2016).
Though the federal government is somewhat biased in their environmental policy development
and maximum fund is allocated in environmental policy reformation but it has in recent times
realized the impact of all factors are interconnected and focusing on one area will not be enough
for all (McCowan, Reilly and Steven 2014). Oil sector is one of the booming sectors in Nigeria

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and maximum country’s revenue comes from the oil and gas sector and so the Government is
focusing more on environmental impacts resulted from oil industries like oil spills, soil
degradation, pollution and water body intoxication (Usman and Amran 2015). Environmental
protection is necessary but not by neglecting the socio-economic life conditions of the people.
The main purpose of the discussion paper was to provide the reader the various aspects of
disparities caused directly or indirectly by the implementation failure of the governmental
environment policies specially EIA (Ojo, Salau and Falola 2014). Nigeria is already struggling
with its issues of unemployment, poverty and healthcare services and now increased support to
the environmental issues will make them worse and living conditions will be highly affected
(Yakubu and Akanegbu 2015). The Niger delta region is most affected due to the location of oil
and gas industrial spills there and so it is high time the Federal Government should include an
integrated EIA implementation approach focusing on SIA a well (Afolayan 2014). Focus on
alternate entrepreneurial business opportunities should be increased to reduce the environmental
impacts of petroleum and oil and gas industries in the country (Jelilov and Onder 2016).
Recommendations
It is true that the Federal Government is continuously reforming the various
environmental policies in order to enhance the quality of life of Nigerian people but it should
widen its focus to socio-economic factors as well (Blakemore and Cooksey 2017). A holistic
community-based approach of mitigating issues and problem areas should be adopted instead of
juggling in between two EIAs and giving contradictory focus on environmental policies
(Arogundade, Adebisi and Ogunro 2014). Stakeholders need to be committed in their actions and
all should work together to alleviate the ill effects of social injustice. The expectations of the key
stakeholders namely proponents, public and decision makers need to be fulfilled. The

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dependence on crude oil for economy strengthening should be revised and a more diversified
approach need to be implemented (Osakwe 2014). Security and corruption concerns should also
be focused so that both local and foreign investors are encouraged to invest in Nigeria (Etuk,
Etuk and Michael 2014). Collaborative partnership should be encouraged and agriculture should
be modernized so that the number of jobless reduces and laws implemented should be such that
all sectors like education, healthcare, employment etc. are considered holistically (Maina 2014).
Entrepreneurship should be encouraged so that unemployed youths could use their capability of
technical and vocational education in supporting the success of this new sector of business
(Ambituuni, Amezaga and Emeseh 2014). Continuous reformation of policies will reduce the
ultimate impact of theirs and so there is need for stabilization and the government should focus
on one strategy that will support all possible disparities in Nigerian economy be it social or
environmental (Odukoya, Bowale and Okunlola 2018). In addition to all these, the oil and gas
industries should also support their corresponding CSR activities and focus on lessening the
environmental impacts caused by the industries like planting more saplings, providing jobs or
monetary benefits to the families of the people who have been suffering from occupational health
issues or are victims of industrial accidents and hazards (Dev, Mberu and Pongou 2016). Along
with them carbon foot print reduction, climate change support initiatives, and fair trade should
also be supported at large.
Future implications
In spite of innumerable number of challenges, the Nigerian Government is trying their
level best to cope up environmental adversities and are continuously reforming the various
strategies and plans (Schoneveld 2014). And overall the main principle of the Nigerian
Environmental Policy is to ensure holistic sustainable development which can be attained by

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proper resource management of both renewable and non-renewable sources (Sesan et al. 2013).
The environmental dynamics increase the requirement of careful planning of resource
management and will help in maintaining the ecological balance (Umejesi and Akpan 2013). The
environmental policies so developed in recent times are based on a number of sustainable
development principles like the precautionary principle of threats and irreversible damages of
degradation, project cost effectiveness, encouragement of Pollution Prevention Pays Principle
(3P+) of positive investment, implementation of the Polluters Pay Principle (PPP) AND User
Pay Principle (UPP) with relevant cost effectiveness in areas of resource extraction,
transformation and final usage (Sunjka and Jacob 2013). Focus on both intra and inter-
generational equity is given to support the equal rights of every citizen of Nigeria to have a
cleaner and healthy environment to live in.

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