Oman's History: Trade, Islam, and Persian Influence (6th-9th Century)

This report delves into the history of Oman from the 6th to the 9th century AD, examining the significant factors that shaped the region's development. The study begins by highlighting Oman's strategic location at the crossroads of the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and Africa, along with its natural advantages for sea trade. It explores the influence of Persian rule until the rise of Islam in the 7th century, which drastically altered the course of Omani history. The report investigates the crucial role of Omani sailors and traders in spreading Islam throughout the Indian Ocean, their shipbuilding skills, and the expansion of trading activities. It examines the importance of Omani port towns like Qalhat, Sohar, and Julfar, their connections to China, and their influence on trade routes. The methodology involves historical research utilizing primary and secondary sources to provide a comprehensive analysis of the events and their impact on the cultural and economic life of the region. Key findings include the increased trading activities with China, the impact of Islam on trade, and the strategic importance of Omani port towns. The report further discusses the entry of Omanis into China and their interactions with Chinese culture. The research also touches upon the political and economic conditions during this period, highlighting the factors that contributed to Oman's prominence in maritime trade.

The History of Oman from the 6th to the 9th Century AD 1
THE HISTORY OF OMAN FROM THE 6TH TO THE 9TH CENTURY AD
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The History of Oman from the 6th to the 9th Century AD 2
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………....3
1.1 Introduction……………………………………………………..….3
1.2 Purpose of the Research………………………………………..…..3
1.3 Research Questions…………………………………………….…..4
LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………………….4
2.1 Early Sea Trade……………………………………………………...4
METHODOLOGY……………………………………………………………....6
3.1 Historical Research…………………………………………………..6
FINDINGS…………………………………………………………………….....6
4.1 Omani Port Towns…………………………………………………...7
4.2 Oman Increases Trading Activities with the Chinese…………….....8
4.3 Entry of Omanis to China…………………………………................9
4.4 Oman in East Africa………………………………………………...10
4.5 Oman During the 9th Century……………………………………….11
Conclusion……………………………………………........................................11
References……………………………………………………………………….12

The History of Oman from the 6th to the 9th Century AD 3
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Various factors influence the early history of the Omani people with the sea. First, its location is
at crossroads between the Middle East, South East, and Africa. Second, its long shores started
from Hurmuz Straits on the extreme North to Yemen Oman borders. Third, it is a convenient and
safe natural sea-haven for ships. Conversely, the ports of Qalhat, Sohat, and Muscat provided
safe covers plus profuse supplies to ships in all seasons. From the 6th century onwards, Oman
was typically under the great Persian dynasties rule just across the Gulf that is currently known
as Iran. According to the Oman history, the Achaemenids were the first to build a local capital at
Sohat; then came the Parthians; lastly, the Sassanids who reigned until the Islam rise in the 7th
century. Oman was one of the first places to convert to Islam as the prophet sent a proselytizer
around 630 AD, and the Omani rulers accepted the new faith. Notably, this was before the Sunni
and Shi’a split, which resulted in Omanis taking up Ibadi Islam. Omani sailors and traders were
among the influencing factors in Islam propagation around the Indian Ocean rim. They carried
the new religion to South East Asia, India, and sections of the East African coast. By seafaring
virtue, Omanis were excellent ship-builders as they imported Indian timber, where some were
exported to Yemen.
1.2 Purpose of the Research
The purpose of this paper is to conduct extensive research on the history of Omanis from the 6th
to the 9th century. Notably, Oman was under Persian control until the 7th century during the
coming of Islam. In the 8th century, the latter had settled on the “island of Socotra,” which they
utilized as a foundation for raiding and trading downwards the Horn of Africa.

The History of Oman from the 6th to the 9th Century AD 4
1.3 Research Questions
1. Was China a major trading point for the Omani merchants?
2. Which are the main trading points in Oman, and what influence did they have on trade?
3. Was the rise of Islam a contributing factor to the increase in trade of Oman?
LITERATURE REVIEW
Thesis Statement: The history of Oman dates back to the 6th century when it was under Persian
rule, although the reign came to a drastic end after the coming of Islam in the 7th century, which
boosted the trade of the Omanis and the world as they tried to spread the new faith.
2.1 Early Sea Trade
From various studies, the only time Omanis transported goods by road was in their final
stage as they moved from the Far East and Southeast Asia to Africa and the Middle East. Those
goods that were intended for the Middle East were offloaded at Ibillah near Basrah (Al-Rawas,
1990, p.8). Contrary, if Africa was the destination, unloading occurred at Alexandria. From the
two cases, ships halted at Muscat or Sohar for loading fresh supplies and appropriate winds.
Therefore, a great deal of trading happened between the merchants in these locations.
In 563 BC, Omani people were under the rule of the “Parthian Emperor Cyrus.” Later in
the reign of the first “Sasanid King Ardeshir” in 226 A.D, most Persian merchants occasionally
hired Omani crew for their ships. At this time, Persians controlled the trade along the “Persian
Gulf” and the “Arab Peninsula” (Isaac, 2004, p.16). Importantly, it appears that the coastal
Omani towns remained under the occupation of Persians until the arrival of the “Azdi Chief
Malik Ibn Fahm” from Yemen in the 1st century. The latter migrated from Yemen with at least

The History of Oman from the 6th to the 9th Century AD 5
5,000 tribesmen at Qalhat on the East coast, where he had to fight with the Persians and emerged
victorious. Thus, “Malik Ibn Fahm” and his sons who came after him ruled Oman until the Islam
advent.
The early seafaring trade in the Western Indian Ocean was very active during the times of
“Sargon of Akkad (2334-2279 BCE). Contrary, the port towns based on the “Arabian Peninsula,”
and from “Aqab” located on the Red Sea to “Basra” on the Persian Gulf hosted seasonal markets
and fairs in the 6th and 7th centuries. According to “Ibn Habib,” these trading activities were
attended by traders from Oman and Persia (Aguis, 2013, p.42). Some most suitable trade
locations of the Omanis include “Dibba” at the base of “Musandam Peninsula,” Sohar on the
Eastern Omani coast, and “Shihr” on the “Hadhrami” coast. Of these regions, “Dibba” was
considered the most significant, although Sohar was crucial in linking the sea with India, China,
and the Persian coast.
Several historical pieces of literature focus on the Chinese and Muslim ship activities. For
instance, Sulayman al-Tajir (from 231 to 851) was one of the most ancient merchantmen who
first documented his encounter with Chinese ships that conducted trade with “Persian Siraf, al-
Masudi,” a writer and merchant. He further suggested that Omani and Sirafi merchants and
sailors cruised the Chinese sea, and “Buzurg Ibn Shahriyar,” a storyteller and sea captain,
narrates that Sirafi mariners sailed to China.
Cargo vessels going Eastbound from Oman and Yemen would depart for India using the
South West winds, making only one stop in southwest India before reaching China. Additionally,
westbound vessels had to complete their journey in two seasons; they navigated from China to
India using Northwesterly winds, with only one stop waiting for the South West winds in mid-

The History of Oman from the 6th to the 9th Century AD 6
October, then proceeded to Oman, Yemen, or the Persian Gulf. Normally, the journey from
Oman to China (“Muscat”- “Quilon”- “Kalah”- “Canton”) took at least three months.
In November, they sailed back to Oman using a different route; from “canton” to Sumatra
(Aceh), which took at least 40 days. Then, sailing from Aceh to “Dhofar” in January, which took
60 days. According to “Buzung b. Shahriyar,” a storyteller from his companions in Oman and
“Persian Siraf,” Captain “Ismailwayh,” told him the journey from “Kalah” (Malaysian West
coast) to Sohar took 48 days. Based on the distance from “Muscat” to “Quilon” (2,513
kilometers), the voyage took at least 28 days with the help of fair winds.
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Historical Research
This paper utilizes historical research as an approach to qualitative research. Normally, it is the
process of analyzing past events systematically to provide an account of activities in the past.
Notably, it is simply not an accumulation of facts and dates or an explanation of past deeds, but
is a comprehensive description of past activities. Data sources of ancient research can be taken
from either primary or secondary sources. Primary sources are based on the first-person
interpretations that involve written or oral eyewitness testimonies; these may include
observational notes, recordings, journals, letters, and photographs (Junilla, 2015, p.1). Contrary,
secondary sources are account explanation of people did not witness the happenings. These may
include textbooks, scholarly articles, reference books, newspaper articles, and encyclopedias.
Importantly, this research mainly relies on secondary sources for comprehensive analysis.
FINDINGS
4.1 Omani Port Towns

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Julfar held a tactical position during the “Abd al-Malik” caliphate (650 to 705 AD).
Besides, it occupied a crucial trading position through the Omani desert. Due to its juxtaposition
to the Persian coast, most Persians settled in this place because of the pearl-fishing activities for
which the Julfar was popular. Duarte Barbosa, a Portuguese visitor, mentioned that people living
in these areas were greatly valued as they were respected, wholesale dealers, and navigators.
Another great harbor town of Oman was Sohar. Similarly, most Persians inhabited this
region before the rise of Islam. Contrary, with an increasingly belligerent Islamic mission, the
majority of Persians converts, and Omani tribesmen living in Sohar cruised to the Persian coast
to spread their new faith. In spite of numerous Omanis returning to their native land, some after
the conquest decided to settle on the “Persian littoral.” The strategic location of Sohar was
attributed to it being away from the monsoonal winds, which transformed it into a crucial trading
hub. Conversely, ships from the West and Eastbound for the “Persian Gulf” rested in this region
before proceeding.
From the 4th to 10th century, there were various goods destined for Oman. These included
perfumery, brazilwood, pharmaceutical goods, sandalwood, and teakwood. Other commodities
include ivory, silk, lead, pepper, glass, brocade, sandarax, iron, pearls, sapphire, and camphor.
Due to this fact, Sohar acted as a doorway to China as it enabled trading commodities voyaging
by camels to the desert Oases, then trans-shipped to Basra and Siraf in the North. From the 690
AD, Sohar has at least 12,000 houses built of mortar, teakwood, and bricks. Archaeological
discoveries at Sohar comprise of copper work, which Omanis were renowned. From the 6th to the
8th century, the South of Sohar (Qalhat) began to receive ships containing spices and other
products from India. The region provided favorable prices for the goods compared to those of the
“Persian Gulf.” Besides, it was the best location to export exotic horses to India. Although,

The History of Oman from the 6th to the 9th Century AD 8
Qahlat became a prosperous center for business in the Gulf, it was similar to Julfar, both
politically and administratively, as it relied on “Hormuz” on the Persian coast.
4.2 Oman Increases Trading Activities with the Chinese
Since the Omanis were under Persian rule, they assigned agents at various markets, and
the Persian superintendents levied heavy taxes on cargoes brought by the Chinese and Indian
merchants. During the rise of Islam in the 7th century, there was also a growth in the trade to
Mecca via Jeddah and the desert routes (Hawley, 1971, p.47). Also, the port town located at the
Red Sea had a large seafaring presence and Persian mercantile. Importantly, Islam was a great
influence in the 7th century as it was a sense of identity and unity for the nomadic Arabian
Hinterland tribes. Due to this fact, the latter led a great assertion against the dominance of
Persians, which led to the decline in the authority of Persian agents in the “Arabian Peninsular”
port towns. Ironically, the “Arabians of Al-Bahyran” and the Omani territory gained greater
prominence, and controlled the trade to “Mecca” through “Yamama.”
The coastal “Arabian Peninsula” area is commonly known as the ancient origin of
today’s civilization. Additionally, people in this region, including the Omanis, had already
understood the irrigation technology. They learned to irrigate using groundwater, and developed
sophisticated irrigation structures. In plateau and grassland regions of Oman, nomadic livestock
farming had established by the 6th century (Risso, 2016, p.2). Alternatively, handicraft industry
and enterprises of Oman were growing steadily by this period. Since the 2nd century, Omani
people were credited worldwide for their prowess in navigation and shipbuilding. For instance,
“Vere Gordon Childe,” a British historian mentioned that the southern coastal regions of the
Arabian world, particularly Omani areas were the origin of the navigators who conducted
business with the Gulf, Sindh, and Ethiopia.

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4.3 Entry of Omanis to China
Communication between the Omani and Chinese began with the Tang dynasty, which
developed drastically in the Yung and Song dynasties because of Tang’s influence in the East. At
the same time, Islam had helped unite Oman with other Arab states that led to the development
of the Arab Empire. Since the 1st century, the Indian Ocean had been the foundation of maritime
traffic. In order to create the overseas trade, the former first built prime-intendancies of
commercial shipping in Guangzhou. As a result, the Omani traders came to China to trade and
settle. Occasionally, the “Arab Peninsula” merchants used to visit China for extended periods,
which influenced them to interact and marry Chinese women whom they converted into Islam.
Due to this fact, their offspring were instrumental in spreading the Islam message.
According to Al-Lawati (1994, p.4), trade is the vehicle that transmits culture, arts, and
civilization from one place to another. Hence, along with exchanging items, these merchants
adopted the orient culture and the Islam religion to South China. Notably, Islam formally entered
South China in the 7th century. The religion thrived in places such as Quanzhou, and other
sections of South China. This is evident from the remains of the “Al Zikra” mosque established
by “Abu Obaidah Abdullah Ibn al Qasim,” a pioneer Omani traveler in the 8th century.
Nonetheless, multiple Muslim graves can be located in Quanzhou with various Arabic
inscriptions dating to the 9th and 10th centuries.
By the 7th century, the Arabian Sea was named after the Omani navigators. The
Sumerians living in modern-day Iraq called Oman, the “Maghan Country.” According to
Sumerians, “Maghan” refers to ship. Based on this suggestion, the residents in Oman survived on
sailing and shipbuilding. The Omanis had created several massive ports on its coasts with wharfs
and shipyards. The largest being Sohar, Sour, and Muscat. The latter’s wooden junks possessed

The History of Oman from the 6th to the 9th Century AD 10
premium seaworthiness performance, which was agile, light, and fast with exquisite technology
of shipbuilding. Consequently, Omanis had a great contribution to the establishment of steering
passes on the Indian Ocean, the Gulf, and the maritime traffic between the West and the East.
As for the Gulf, Oman was one of the most significant distribution centers, and a process-
required hub which the vessels pass. Suleiman talked about “Muscat of Oman” severally in his
itinerary, while Hassan termed Oman as a crucial section of the Chinese trade (Saadi, 2012,
p.92). He further suggested that because of the rebellion of Huang Chao, the enterprise in
Guangzhou was greatly influenced by Omanis, who relied on the Chinese business.
Notably, the extension of Arab trade (including Omanis merchants) in the Indian Ocean
was not only because of the rise of Islam, but also China. The Mohammedan state at “Medina”
was developed in 622, while that in the Tang dynasty developed in 618. The Tang rule bolstered
the bureaucracy and brought a firm centralized government to China. The history of Omanis is
evident in multiple areas. For instance, the embroidered men caps and the style of women's
dresses indicate influences from Baluchistan and Zanzibar. Also, most Omanis spoke Arabic
with a Swahili accent.
4.4 Oman in East Africa
Omani and Persian Gulf trade with East Africa increased tremendously during the
coming of Islam as they focused on navigating south of the Horn of Africa. The voyage
prioritized this region because most Muslim merchants have distinct but restricted influence.
After the Persians forayed into Yemen in the 6th century, the Aksumites neglected their marine
aspirations, and Omani merchants from Sohar and Siraf gradually took over their role in the
African coast, north of the Horn of Africa (Paine, 2015, p.44). By the 8th century, the latter had

The History of Oman from the 6th to the 9th Century AD 11
settled on the “island of Socotra,” which they utilized as a foundation for raiding and trading
beyond the Horn.
4.5 Oman during the 9th Century
In the mid-9th century, the Imam, who reigned over Oman agreed to reinforce the nation’s
sea-authority considerably (Pridham, Smith, and Smart, 1997, p.183). The purpose of this was to
fight off the invaders (sea pirates) from Persia and India who raided Omani vessels on the high
seas. In spite of Omani merchants traveling in ships made from their region before Islam, the
current Imam ushered the Omani maritime navy into a futuristic age of skilled and powerful
merchant and military fleets. From this time onwards, Omani vessels went to South China.
Besides, they met Chinese vessels at the India ports of “Kalam Maly and Malabar” where
products from China were exchanged for those brought from Siraf, Bahrain, and Oman.
5.1 Conclusion
Since Oman was under Persian rule, they assigned representatives at multiple markets,
and the Persian superintendents imposed heavy taxes on cargoes brought by the Chinese and
Indian merchants. During the 6th and 7th centuries, there was amplified trade within Muscat,
Sohar, Persian Gulf, India, and China routes, which prompted the Chinese to alter the ancient
Silk Route from overland to a marine route. In the 7th century, the coming of Islam to Oman
boosted trade tremendously as Omani traders spread this new faith through marrying Chinese
women in South China. Notably, communication between the Omani and Chinese started with
the Tang dynasty, which grew rapidly in the Yung and Song dynasties due to Tang’s influence in
the East. Some of the commodities destined for Oman included perfumery, brazilwood,
pharmaceutical goods, sandalwood, and teakwood. Moreover, Omani traders from Siraf and

The History of Oman from the 6th to the 9th Century AD 12
Sohar had gradually took over trade in African coasts and the Horn of Africa, and they planned
raids south of the Horn of Africa in the 8th century.