University Essay: Perception and Cognition - Memory and Truth

This essay delves into the complex realm of perception and cognition, specifically focusing on the concept of memory. It explores the historical and ongoing debate surrounding the validity of memories, particularly in the context of traumatic experiences and child sexual abuse (CSA). The essay examines the "memory wars" of the 1990s, highlighting the controversy between clinicians and memory scientists regarding the reliability of repressed memories. It discusses the influence of key figures like Loftus, Freyd, and others, along with the emergence of organizations like the False Memory Syndrome Foundation. The essay also explores the impact of experiments like the "Lost in the Shopping Mall" study and the development of theories like the "Fuzzy Trace Theory" on understanding the fallibility of human memory. Ultimately, the essay concludes that not all memories are accurate, and various factors influence their formation and recall, making it crucial to critically evaluate the information we retain.

Running head: PERCEPTION AND COGNITION
Perception and Cognition
Name of the Student:
Name of the University:
Author’s Note:

1PERCEPTION AND COGNITION
“The biggest wall you have to climb is the one you build in your mind: Never let your mind
talk you out of your dreams, trick you into giving up. Never let your mind become the
greatest obstacle to success. To get your mind on the right track, the rest will follow”
The author “Roy Bennett” in the above quoted lines gives an overview of the concept
of memory and the role which it is likely to play in the lives of the various individuals. The
concept of memory can be defined as the capability or the ability of the individuals by means
of which the individuals concerned are able to retain various kinds of information as well as
knowledge which is likely to help them not only in the present times but also in the future
times as well (Forrest, François & Hagemann, 2013). However, in the opinion of many
people the concept of memory can also be seen as the collection of all the past experiences as
well as reminiscences of the individuals which not only help them to perform the various
necessary activities which form an essential part of their daily lives but also forms an integral
part of their identity (Patihis et al., 2014). However, many psychologists are of the opinion
that memories can be implanted within the mind of the individuals. Therefore in the present
times a debate has ensued, also called by the name of “memory wars” as per which false
memories can be implanted in the minds of the individuals. Thus, many people are of the
opinion that not all the memories which the various individuals have are true (Forrest,
François & Hagemann, 2013). This essay will discuss about the fact that not all the memories
which the various individuals are true and that false memories can be implanted in the
individuals.
Memory has been an area of much critical debate since the traditional times and it is a
reflection of this particular fact that this particular theme has an area of much critical debate
(Patihis et al., 2014). It is a reflection of this particular fact even in the ancient times the
various philosophers like Socrates, Confucius and others tried to explore this particular
process of the human brain (Patihis et al., 2014). It is significant to note that even in the 19th

2PERCEPTION AND COGNITION
as well as the 20th century various psychologists as well as theorists tried to explore this
particular concept (Patihis et al., 2014). The chief among them were Freud, Julia Kristeva,
Jacques Lacan and others and it is a reflection of the works of these psychologists that in the
21st century the human beings have a clear understanding of the concept of memory and the
true nature of it (Patihis et al., 2014). However, the real change in the debate came with the
emergence of the various “Child Sexual Abuse (CSA)” cases which to the front in the later
part of the 20th century and further added fuel to the debate which has been raging since the
traditional times (Kaplan et al., 2016). In the opinion of many scholars the issues brought to
the forefront by these cases were one of the chief reasons for the critical debate about the
validity of the memory and its related processes in the later part of the 20th century (Newman
et al., 2015).
In the opinion of the authors Rutten, Fedor and Zvereva (2013), “the memory wars of
the 1990s refer to the controversy between some clinicians and memory scientists about the
reliability of repressed memories”. These authors completely based there researches as well
as findings on the various “Child Sexual Abuse (CSA)” which came to the forefront in the
later part of the 20th century (Rutten, Fedor & Zvereva, 2013). The critical debate about the
validity of the memory wars or the about the validity of the memories gained further
prominence with the comment of Loftus when he said that during the course of diagnosis the
therapists found that many of the memories which the various therapists found in the patients
related to the abuse or trauma were more likely to be false than true and it is a reflection of
this many psychologists in the later part of the century began to undertake several researches
in a bid to prove the falseness of the trauma memories (Bernstein & Loftus, 2009).
Furthermore, many psychologists are of the opinion that the various false memories which
the people in the present times have are the result of the unethical psychologists who in a bid

3PERCEPTION AND COGNITION
to make more money out of the patients take the help of the unethical means of infusing false
memories into their heads (Forrest, François & Hagemann, 2013).
The debate about the validity of the various traumatic as well as the abusive memories
which the various individuals have gained a considerable amount of significance with the
allegations of “Professor Jennifer Freyd”(Kaplan et al., 2016). She alleged that her own
father had sexually abused her as a child and that she had recovered that particular memory
after years of insomnia about the memory (Kaplan et al., 2016). It is significant to note this
particular allegation played a significant role in this particular debate as it led to the
foundation of the famous organisation which was called by the name of “False Memory
Syndrome Foundation (FMSF)” (Newman et al., 2015). The “False Memory Syndrome
Foundation (FMSF)” was founded in the United States of America (Newman et al., 2015).
This particular foundation championed the cause of the people against whom allegations were
made for various kinds of crimes on the basis of the recovered memories which the victims
had recovered by miraculous means after years of insomnia about the incident (Newman et
al., 2015). It is a reflection of the success which this particular organisation gained within a
very short time that in the year 1994 the “British False Memory Society” was established in
the nation of the United Kingdom (Newman et al., 2015). The work of these two institutions
has contributed in a significant manner towards the critical debate which is under discussion
here (Newman et al., 2015). The psychologists Bernstein and Loftus both related to these
two institutions played a significant role in this particular debate and they are of the opinion
that “prior to 1991 the vast majority (80%) of the literature on child sexual abuse pertained to
the victims and their needs, whereas just three years later the predominant focus of the
literature (80%) was on the problem of false memories of CSA and the potential for the
wrongful conviction of innocent people erroneously accused of CSA” (Bernstein & Loftus,
2009). In the opinion of other scholars the works of psychologists like Beckett also played a

4PERCEPTION AND COGNITION
significant role to show the falseness or the lack of the validity of the various trauma as well
as abuse memories which the patients claimed to have recovered after years of amnesia about
the same incident (Rutten, Fedor & Zvereva, 2013). Moreover, the psychologist as well as the
theorist Dallam made a very pertinent observation with the comment that “a memory which
has been recovered by individuals with the aid of the various psychologists is more likely to
be a false one than a genuine one” (Rutten, Fedor & Zvereva, 2013). Therefore, it would be
apt to say that the works of the various psychologists like Beckett, Loftus, Dallam and others
played a significant role in showing the false nature of the various abuses as well as the
traumatic memories which the various people claimed to have recovered after years of
amnesia (Rutten, Fedor & Zvereva, 2013).
The critical debate about the falseness of the various kinds of recovered memories
gained further significance with the “Lost in the Shopping Mall” experiment the various
psychologists received further more proof that the various kinds of recovered memories
which the people had recovered after years of amnesia were merely a part of their
imagination or an implant of the various kinds of unethical psychologists (Warren et al.,
2014). This particular experiment clearly showed although the majority of the participants in
the experiment had never been lost in a shopping in their childhood and therefore had never
to face that particular trauma yet many of them reported that they had (Warren et al., 2014). It
is significant to note that after the success of this particular to show that the various kinds of
memories which the individuals have recovered were mostly false memories several other
experiments were conducted by the other psychologists which also showed the falseness of
the various recovered memories (Forrest, François & Hagemann, 2013). It is a reflection of
results of this particular experiment and various other subsequent experiments the various
courts of law which earlier used to accept the recovered memories of the individuals as
totally genuine ones now take the help of the various kinds of tests like “Rorschach

5PERCEPTION AND COGNITION
projective imagery test”, “Statement Validity Analysis” and others to test the validity of
the recovered memories of the individuals (Forrest, François & Hagemann, 2013).
The critical debate about the falseness of the memories gained further significance
with the emergence of various theories like “Fuzzy tracing theory” and others (Pipe et al.,
2013). According to this particular theory, the memories which an individual has are related
to the overview of the entire incident or just the gist of the entire thing and not the actual
details of the things which actually happened at that particular point of time (Pipe et al.,
2013). Therefore, many people are of the opinion that the various individuals keep on adding
their personal views as well as imagination to the thing which have actually happened
(Forrest, François & Hagemann, 2013). Furthermore, many people are also of the opinion
that the individuals in the subconscious part of their brain always relive the incidents which
had actually happened in their past and it is a result of this particular fact that the memories
which the various individuals have are not absolutely accurate (Rutten, Fedor & Zvereva,
2013). This particular fact becomes furthermore apparent when various different individuals
are asked to give the accounted of the same incident which had happened in their lives and it
is interesting to note that most of these individuals give the same overview of the incident
however the minor details of the incident are modified by them (Rutten, Fedor & Zvereva,
2013). Thus, it can be said that not only the trauma as well as the abusive memories which
the various people claim to have recovered after a period of amnesia but also the normal ones
which they have stored in their brain are not hundred percent accurate (Rutten, Fedor &
Zvereva, 2013).
To conclude, the concept of memory has formed an important area of curiosity for the
human beings for a very long time and it is a reflection of this particular fact that a large
number of researches have been conducted in this particular field. The critical debate which
ensued in the later part of the 20th century has contributed in a significant manner to show that

6PERCEPTION AND COGNITION
not all the memories which the various individuals possess are absolutely correct and the
various traumatic as well as the abusive memories related to the CAB which the various
individuals claim to have recovered after prolonged periods of amnesia about the same
incidents are pertinent examples of this particular fact. Furthermore, the recent researches
conducted by the various theorists as well as researchers also show not only the memories
related to trauma and abuse or recovered but other kinds of memories which an individual
possesses are not hundred percent accurate. Therefore, it can be said that the human beings
cannot always trust their memories as the recent researches have shown they are not always
accurate. There are various factors which affect the memory of the various individuals and it
is generally seen that even the natural memories which the various individuals have are been
subjected to different kinds of imaginative exercises and thus they are not absolutely
accurate. However, it has been established that the various recovered memories cannot be
trusted.

7PERCEPTION AND COGNITION
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