Psychology Assignment: Analyzing Personality Theories and Concepts

This essay delves into the multifaceted realm of personality psychology, exploring four major perspectives: psychoanalytic, trait, humanistic, and social-cognitive theories. The author expresses agreement with the humanistic approach, highlighting its emphasis on individual uniqueness and self-actualization, while disagreeing with the psychoanalytic perspective due to perceived flaws and limitations. The essay then examines Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, outlining the key crises and developmental tasks associated with each stage from infancy to old age. Finally, the essay touches upon Erich Fromm's contributions, specifically his concepts of negative and positive freedom and his analysis of authoritarianism. The essay provides a comprehensive overview of these key concepts and their implications in the study of personality.

Running head: PERSONALITY (PSYCHOLOGY)
PERSONALITY (PSYCHOLOGY)
Name of the Student
Name of the University
Author Note

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Question 1
Personality can be defined as the mixture of characteristic traits or qualities that
constitute an individual's unique character (Millon et al, 2012). The four major perspectives of
personality include:
 Psychoanalytic theory – It is the theory of personality organization and the dynamics
of personality development that guides psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating
psychopathology (Elliott, 2015).
 Trait theory - In this theory, primary interest is focused on the measurement of traits,
which can be defined as habitual patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion (Colbert
et al, 2012).
 Humanistic theory – This theory emphasizes the study of the whole person. Here
human behavior is studied not only from the viewpoint of the observer, but from that
of the person doing the behaving, as well (Schneider, Pierson & Bugental, 2014).
 Social-Cognitive theory – This preaches that parts of an individual's knowledge
acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social
interactions, experiences, and outside media influences (Cervone & Pervin, 2015).
I agree with the humanistic theory of psychology. Out of all these 4 perspectives, this
theory takes into account the entire human side when analyzing the psychological front of the
human brain. Qualities that make humans unique amongst all animals such as aspiring for self-
determination and self-realization are dealt with in this theory (Ewen, 2014). Psychologists
believing in this train of thought, believe that an individual’s subjective experiences are more
important than the objective reality for judging their personality. This leads to an optimistic
perspective on human nature. In this view, people themselves are held responsible for their

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actions and lives; and that they are entitled to their own freedom and will to modify their
behaviour and attitude in life.
Maslow’s theory of ‘hierarchy of needs’, provides a detailed study of how exactly the
needs of a man affect his personality (Schultz & Schultz, 2016; Ryckman, 2012). There are four
major levels in this hierarchy. The bottom one refers to physiological needs such as food,
clothing and shelter. The satisfaction of these needs lead a person to fulfil the next need of
‘safety’. They include the needs for a person to be safe, not only biologically or physically but
socially as well. The third level encircles attachment or the need of ‘belonging’. This need of a
man is due to his social nature or rational being.
Once the above needs are fulfilled, the need for self-esteem or self-actualization arises,
which questions his need of existence and makes him strive to achieve something significant in
his life. This final stage provides him the uniqueness which is necessary as an individual or
human being. Carl Rogers borders on a similar point of view with his ‘actualizing tendency’
theory where he believes that each person has an inherent special tendency or instinct within him
that motivates him to grow and develop. He holds a similar view regarding self-esteem and states
that it helps people to build character and lead towards a better lifestyle.
Personally I agree with this theory as it leads to awareness and acceptance of individuals
themselves, helps them develop close friendships, instils in them openness, spontaneity, and a
tendency to have experiences that are emotionally and spiritually gratifying.
I disagree with the psychoanalytic theory of personality. On the other hand, this school of
thought emphasize on unconscious desires, as well as significance of childhood memories to be
the key factor in shaping personality. Sigmund Freud the pioneer in this area holds the view that
the very early stages of human life, start shaping personality of an individual. His theory is based

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on the conjecture that the drive for human behavior is sex (Wright, 2013; Fromm, 2013).
Negative alterations in any area starting from the act of sucking milk to toilet training to further
periods of growth encircling genital and phallic stages, will result in negative alterations of a
person’s character as per Sigmund Freud. Addiction to narcotics for example smoking or a
natural satisfaction experienced while sucking objects can be associated with a deficiency in
some way in the person’s oral stage. Stubbornness can be associated with a deficiency in the
‘anal’ stage of development in a similar way.
Adler’s theory is based on the belief that human behaviour is affected by the need to
overcome inferiority complex (Adler, 2013). He too, like Freud, believes that the circumstances
of a person’s childhood shape up the personality exhibits (Eckstein & Kaufman, 2012).
Personally I disagree with the psychoanalytic theory as it is based on Freudian theory, which
itself is declared flawed by some psychologists. Moreover, individual differences and
characteristics that contribute to human uniqueness are overlooked here. In addition, critics
accuse some such therapists of not recovering repressed memories of patients but placing ‘false
memories’ into their minds instead.
Question 2
Erik Erikson, the German-born American psychoanalyst and developmental psychologist
who was known for his theory of the psychosocial development of human beings. The
psychoanalyst may be considered most famous for coining the phrase “identity crisis” (Kroger,
2014). The American psychoanalyst may also be considered one of the initiators of ego
psychology. Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are an all-inclusive theory of
psychoanalysis that recognizes eight serial stages which a healthy individual has to go through
during his life journey starting from infancy to the end of his lifetime (Newman & Newman,

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2017). According to Erikson, each of these stages is built on the successfully completed previous
stages.
The eight stages mentioned by the American psychoanalyst in terms of their crises are as
follows:
 Hope – This stage is incurred during the age group of the first eighteen months of
life (McLeod, 2013). During this stage of life, the infant has its basic needs
fulfilled by his parents. This leads to the formation of trust or mistrust in the child.
According to Erik Erikson, the major developmental activity of the stage of
infancy is gathering knowledge of the fact that whether or not the care givers are
being able to satisfy the basic needs of the infant. The existential question that the
child faces in this stage is whether or not can the world be trusted.
 Will – This stage last from the age of two years to the age of four years. The
major psychological crisis that an individual incurs in this stage is the dilemma
between the newly acquired autonomy in this stage of life and the sense of shame
and doubt on oneself due to the strictness imposed on their autonomous activities
by their parents (Capps, 2012). During this stage of life too, the parents extend
towards their children a study security base so that the child can learn more about
the world around them through their autonomous explorations.
 Purpose – In this stage that lasts from the age of 4 to that of 5, the child is on its
way to gain knowledge on the basic principles and skills of physics (Lerwick,
2013). The child also gathers information as to how to master the world around
him. The existential question that the child faces in this stage is whether it is

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correct for him to move around, do activities and act according to the situations
that he has to undergo.
 Competence – This stage of an individual lies between the ages 5 and 12. The
child during this phase of life faces the self-doubt whether he is eligible for the
industry (Shokouhi, Limberg & Armstrong, 2014). During this stage a child is
required to gather knowledge and face the new challenges of the skills that he
acquires. In this process, he might have to endure risking his sense of failure,
incompetence and inferiority as compared to his peers.
 Fidelity – A person faces this stage in life during the adolescent period of his life
(Jones et al, 2014). The crisis that the individual faces during this stage of life is
the dilemma of his own identity and the role that he is supposed to play in the
society. This is a transient stage that lies between childhood and adulthood. There
is a significant need for a person to create his own identity during this stage of
life. The adolescents try to think of the roles that they will be playing in the adult
world and may experiment with a large number of activities both good and bad.
 Love - This stage lasts from the age of 20 to 39. The existential question that
crosses the mind of any individual is the question as to whether or not he would
be able to deliver love. During this stage the individual tries to fit in the world. He
faces the crisis of isolation as opposed to the idea of intimacy (Closson, 2015).
 Care – This stage of human life lasts from the age of 40 till that of 64 years. The
human soul faces the crisis of stagnation as opposed to generativity during this
stage (Schoklitsch & Baumann, 2012). During this stage, the existential dilemma
in the minds of human beings is whether or not can he make his life countable. A

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person can maintain his sense of generativity by helping the society in progressing
and may incur a feeling of stagnation due to his feeling of lacking productivity.
 Wisdom – This is the final stage of the human life that lasts from the age of 65
and ends with the death of the person. During this stage the person accomplishes
the task of retrospection on his life so as to obtain answers that whether or not was
he successful in his life. The main crisis faced in this stage is the despair as
opposed to the ego integrity of the person (Hearn et al, 2012). This stage may be
incurred when a person achieves the feeling that their end is imminent.
Question 3
Erich Fromm, a psychoanalyst, humanistic philosopher, social psychologist, democratic
socialist and sociologist from Germany, was one of the founders of the William Allison White
Institute of Psychiatry, Psychoanalysis and Psychology situated in the New York City (Bronner,
2013). One of his famous works is the book titled “Escape from Freedom” (Wilde, 2016). In this
book the psychoanalyst has referred to the shifting relationship that humanity shares with the
concept of freedom with special emphasis on the personal consequences of the absence of
freedom. The psychoanalyst in this piece of work lays special stress on the psychosocial
requirements that favored the rise of Nazism. Necrophilia refers to the sexual attraction or any
sexual act that involves dead bodies. This is also referred to as thanatophilia.
Fromm distinguishes the negative freedom or ‘freedom from’ from the positive one or
‘freedom to’. The psychoanalyst refers to liberation from social restrictions that are imposed on
people by certain institutions and other fellow members of the society as the negative freedom.
This kind of freedom is found in the existentialism as propagated by the French philosopher Jean
Paul Sartre. According to Fromm, this negative form of freedom may lead to a force that is

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destructive by nature unless it is accompanied by a constructive force like the positive freedom
forces. The positive freedom forces refer to the usage of freedom to spontaneously employ the
total personality of a person in performing actions that involve creativity (Friedman, 2013).
According to the psychoanalyst, a true feeling of connectedness with the others is necessarily
implied through this. This connected feeling ranges beyond the superficial bonds that are found
in the conventional methods of social intercourse.
Authoritarianism refers to a certain form of government that is characterized by the
presence of a strong authoritative power that is centrally operative and has limited political
freedoms that can be exercised (Engler, 2013). In an authoritarian state, the freedom of
individuals is considered subordinate to the power of the state. There does not exist any
constitutional accountability to the state that practices authoritarianism. The concepts of
authoritarianism and the concepts of escape from freedom, according to the German
psychoanalyst have led to the increasingly renewed interest in the theories that are related to
terror management (Funk, 2013). The best known work of Fromm, “Escape from Freedom”
deals with the urge of human beings to pursue any source of control and authority after reaching
the freedom that was considered to be the true desire of an individual.
Fromm identifies three forms of mechanisms of escape from the concept of freedom.
They are authoritarianism, automation conformity and destructiveness. The proposed
mechanisms are not capable of resolving the underlying issue of loneliness. These mechanisms
just conceal the issues. The most prominent way to seek escape from the freedom is through the
concept of automaton conformity. In this concept, the individual adapts to the surroundings and
change according to the change in the surroundings.

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According to the psychoanalyst, in the process of gaining freedom from the ruling
authority, the members of the society are often left with the feeling of hopelessness that can be
abated only by one process, the process of implying the positive freedom that the members have
control over followed by the development of some form of replacement of the existing order.
However, submission to a system that follows authoritarianism may be considered a substitute
for the use of the positive freedom of an individual. The authoritarian system that the individual
submits to must be capable of replacing the previous system with another system of a different
appearance on the exterior but must function identically for the individual. It should advise the
individual on the process of thinking and the action procedures thereby eliminating the amount
of uncertainty that has been existing in the minds of the individuals. The belief that the life of an
individual is decided upon by the forces that are foreign to the self, interests and wishes of the
person concerned is a common feature of the theory of authoritarianism. The authoritarian
school of thought believes that the only way to be happy is submission to these forces.
Fromm argues that freedom had become a major issue during the twentieth century. It
came to be seen as something that should be acquired through fighting for it. The 9/11 attack on
the USA was destructive in nature. Destructiveness often offers to solve the problem of freedom
by eliminating the other members of the society or the outside world. This mechanism of escape
is rationalized or disguised as love, patriotism, duty or conscience. According to the German
psychoanalyst the signs of destructiveness are prevalent throughout the world (Durkin, 2014).
The 9/11 attacks were masked under the sense of duty towards the religion and were aimed at
establishing the rule of one religious community over the world.

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Question 4
Melanie Klein was a psychoanalyst of the Austrian-British origin. She formulated novel
and unique therapeutic techniques for the children. These techniques had an influence over
contemporary psychoanalysis and child psychology. Klein was considered to be one of the
leading innovators of the object relations theory (Holmes, 2015). A branch of the psychoanalytic
theory, the theory of object relations lays more stress on the interpersonal relationships, mainly
in the family particularly in the relationship shared by a mother and her child.
The theory of object relations is a branch of the instinct theory that was propounded by
Sigmund Freud, but it differs from the instinct theory in three generalized ways. Firstly, the
object relations theory lays less stress on the drives based on biology and puts more emphasis on
the steady patterns of the interpersonal relations. Secondly, the object relations theory tends to be
on the maternal side. It emphasizes the intimacy and caregiving of the mother unlike the theory
of Freud which lays more importance on the control and power of the father. Thirdly, unlike the
Freudian theory that considers sexual pleasure to be the main motive behind human behavior,
object relations theory views the relatedness and human contact to be the primary motive behind
human behavior. According to Freud, the urge behind the drives have an impetus, an origin, aim
and object. According to the Freudian school of thought, aim and object of a drive have a
psychological significance that is greater than the impulse and the origin of the drive. There may
exist different aims for separate drives, but the underlying motive of achieving pleasure through
the reduction of tension remains constant. According to the Freudian school of thought, object of
the drive is referred to any person, thing or part of person which serves as a means of satisfying
the aim of the drive. Klein and other theorists of the object relations start their journey following
the footsteps of Freud and then advance on to speculate of the process by which the fantasized or

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real relation of the child with its mother in its early days of life poses to be a model for all the
later interpersonal relationships that the individual may incur in its lifetime.
Klein, unlike Freud, lays more importance on the initial four to six months of the life of
an individual. According to her, an individual is born with the capability of reducing the anxiety
that they experience. The anxiety experienced by the child is the product of the conflict between
the forces of the life instinct and the power of the instinct of death. The innate readiness of the
child to react leads to the presupposition of the presence of phylogenetic endowment. Klein had
claimed that the infant possesses an active fantasy life at the time of its birth. These fantasies are
described as the psychic representations of the instincts of the unconscious id and should not be
confused with the fantasies of the conscious id experienced by older children and adults.
 Unconscious phantasy – This term was used by Klein to describe the
psychological aspect of instinct (Segal, 2012). This is a part of the psychic life
that moves towards the world from the child in an outward direction. The image-
potentials are given an importance alongside other drives. These phantasies
eventually help in the development of the more complex stages of the mental lives
of the infants. The unconscious phantasy is modified and molded by the
environmental factors that the child has faced in reality (Bohleber et al, 2015).
The primary role of this unconscious phantasy is to aid in the development of the
thinking capacity of the individual. According to the terms of Bion, the phantasy
image may be said to be a term that gains the status of a thought on combination
of the preconception with a realization (Anderson, 2014). The mental capacity of
a child is built upon the previous experiences during the interaction of an infant
and the environment around him.

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 Projective identification – This function is imagined by the Austrian-British
psychoanalyst as a defensive technique that has its own contributions to the
growth of an infant (Spillius & O'Shaughnessy, 2013). These contributions are
inclusive of the development of the ego of an individual and the object relations.
A newborn identifies the mother’s breast as allocation that can be used to hide
itself from mistreatment of any kind. This is an early step towards the
development of the capacity to self soothe. The projective identification also
serves as a way of communicating one’s feelings (Mendelsohn, 2012). It is a
means to relate to those who are not perceived to be an entirely separate identity
for the individual.
Question 5
Carl Jung known as the pioneer of analytical psychology believed that religious
expression was manifested from the psyche’s desire to achieve a simultaneous balanced state of
consciousness and unconsciousness (Jung, 2014). He proposed that every individual strives to
achieve completion by achieving a synchronizing harmony within consciousness and
unconsciousness and that this was achievable via dream study. Initially he had worked with his
companion Sigmund Freud, but his beliefs led him to part ways with his friend. The fundamental
concepts comprising Jungian psychotherapy are discussed below.
• Active Imagination – In order to connect the gap between consciousness and
unconsciousness, Jung created this concept of active imagination (Dunne, 2015).
A person can bring his unconsciousness into the present via narrative or action by
utilizing his/her dreams and imaginations or via meditation. It relies on the