Physiological Principles in Health and Social Care Report, HND

This report, prepared for a Health and Social Care course, delves into the physiological principles governing the human body. It begins with an exploration of the skeletal system, detailing its structure, function, and the role of joints. The report then moves on to the muscular and nervous systems, highlighting their importance in movement, support, and conductivity. Epithelial tissues and their functions are also discussed. A significant portion of the report is dedicated to the functioning of various body systems, including the cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, excretory, locomotor, integumentary, sensory, reproductive, and metabolic systems. Each system's structure, function, and the impact of aging are considered. The report also addresses the interactions between these systems and examines everyday functioning, such as breathing, in relation to anatomy and physiology. The interconnectedness of various body systems and the implications for geriatric care are emphasized.

Running head: PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES IN HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE
PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES IN HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE
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Task 1
Main Anatomical Features (Check Appendix for Diagrams)
Skeletal System
The skeletal system of the human body, adds structural integrity, strength and assistance
in the overall survival of the organism. The skeletal system is comprised of a total of 206 bones
in a typical adult. The skeletal system provides support to the entire body by providing a base for
attachment of connective tissues such as cartilages, ligaments, tendons, as well as the muscular
tissues (Sheehan et al. 2018).
Principles of Joints
An articulation or a joint implies a section where two or more bones connect. The
primary function of joints lie in their assistance of stability and movement. A major anatomical
example where joints ensure stability is in their maintenance of integrity and interconnectedness
of the minor bones in the skull. The movements in our limbs is an additional function of joints.
The structural principles by which joints can be classified include cartilaginous, fibrous and
synovial joints whereas the functional principles of joints can be classified under the terms of
diarthoses, ampithiarthroses and syanartrhoses. (Cohen 2018). Of these, synovial joints allow for
a wide range of movements due to the fluidity and lubrication initiated by the synovial fluid
present in the cavities between these joints. Hence, a variety of specialized movements in
angular, rotational as well as gliding in nature are enabled by the synovial fluid (Seror et al.
2015). Age associated pathologies are often accompanied with increased inflammatory processes
which may result in loss of synovial fluid and hindered joint movement resulting in joint

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stiffness and loss of flexibility. For this reason, aged care procedures must incorporate joint care
considering the essential movements facilitated by the same (Van der Kraan 2017).
Support
One of the primary functions of the skeletal system lies in its provision of support,
structure and integrity, without which, the human body would be reduced to a mere mass of
tissues, organs and skin. The skeletal system form protective cages for our vital organs and
hence, hindrance to this system increases the probability of injury and damage to our visceral
tissues (Su et al. 2018).
Blood Cell Functions
An additional function of the skeletal system is its maintenance of the blood volumes and
blood cell counts of the entire body. Bone tissues encompass bone marrow whose essential
function lies in the formation of blood cells. While the age associated losses in bone tissues and
calcium reservoirs may lead to a reduction of bone marrow and the resultant blood volume of an
individual, the human body compensates for the same through maintenance of adequate stem cell
proliferation and maturation rates, followed by increase in erythropoietin amounts (Suchacki,
Cawthorn and Rosen 2016). Despite these attempts at normalcy, ageing associated increased
susceptibility to chronic infections may result in compromised bone marrow functioning
resulting in external blood transfusions or other clinical interventions to restore vital blood levels
and the associated oxygen transport in an aged individual (El-Jawhari et al. 2017).
Calcium Reservoir
Bones are the primary reservoir of key mineral deposits such as calcium and
phosphorous, due to bone modeling and resorption process initiated by osteoblasts and

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osteoclasts. The equilibrium of trabecular calcium deposits along with the serum calcium content
is achieved through these bone remodeling processes, initiated by the parathyroid hormones
(Algate et al. 2016). However, ageing exerts disruption of this equilibrium resulting in greater
resorption as compared to modeling resulting in loss of bone mass, bone density, bone strength
and flexibility further increasing the susceptibility of loss of balance, falls and fractures in aged
individuals which must be considered by geriatric health professionals using falls prevention
precautionary procedures (Bartl and Bartl 2017).
Essential Bone Groups
While numerous bones drive the basic human functioning, the following groups of bone
are vital to life (Stathopoulos et al. 2016):
 Spinal and hip bones are composed of a group of minor bones known as the sacrum
 Essential bone groups comprising the limbs include the patella, femur, phalanges, tarsal
and metatarsal.
 Bones outlining the shoulders and torso, include sternum, calvicle, scapula and ribs.
 Bones in the skull, that is the cranium and the mandible are required for enclosing soft
tissues such as the brain and neurons.
Muscular System: Contractility
The muscular system promotes movement and postural freedom to the human body
through contractions and relaxations initiated by muscle fibers with supplementation from the
nervous system, performed by neurotransmitters at the axon terminals. The processes of blood
circulation are also facilitated by the muscular system. Muscular fibers are categorized into the
groups of cardiac, smooth and skeletal types. Cardiac muscles aid in the circulatory activities of

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the heart throughput life. Smooth muscles outline involuntary visceral functioning, facilitated by
the autonomous nervous system. Skeletal muscles aid in the voluntary movement of limbs and
joints and are within our control (Nagy et al. 2019). Ageing is often accompanied by a loss in
muscle fibers and associated flexibility and hence aged care must provide supplementary
procedures to restore such vital processes (Strasser et al. 2018).
Structural function of Ligaments and Tendons
Connective tissues such as ligaments and tendons provide stability and structure to the
human body. Ligaments stabilize bones by forming fibrous connections between bones,
especially in joints. A tendon initiates movement by forming attachments between muscles and
bones or muscles and organs, such as the eye ball (Padulo et al. 2016).
Nervous System: Conductivity
The nervous system is the primary harbinger of human actions through the transmission
of nerve impulses, initiated by neurotransmitters through the entire body. Essential receptors and
neuron bundles allow us to perceive our world through sensory organs and react to our
surroundings by motor movements of our limbs as a response to stimuli. The central nervous
system (CNS) comprise of nerve regulatory organs such as the brain and the spinal cord, whereas
the peripheral nervous system (PNS) form interconnections between the CNS and organs through
various nerve extensions and bundles. The autonomous nervous system (ANS) facilitates
survival, flight or fight based responses based on the prevalence of danger in our surrounding
(Louveau et al. 2015). A key physiological effect of ageing lies in the loss of neurocognitive
functioning resulting in degenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s, dementia and Parkinson’s
(Verkhratsky et al. 2016).

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Epithelial Tissues: Secretory and Absorptive
Epithelial tissues form the lining of inner organ cavities, glands as well as outer surfaces
and are characterized by functions such as absorption of essential substances, provision of
protection and the reception of stimuli present in our surroundings. Considering these functions,
epithelia in the human body are concentrated across renal, cardiac, pulmonary, hepatic,
reproductive, circular, endothelial, lymph, dermal and oral tissues and cavities (Begnaud et al.
2016).
Functioning of Body Systems
Cardiovascular
The cardiovascular system is comprised of primary organ structures such as the heart,
along with blood vessels such as arteries and veins, arterioles and venioles and lymphatic
vessels. The cardiovascular and circular system is essential to maintain life by enabling
circulation of blood, oxygen and essential nutrients across the body. Malfunctioning in the
cardiovascular system due to ageing can lead to reduced cardiac output, increased endothelial
fibrousity and adiposity and fluctuations in blood pressure (Lavie et al. 2015).
Respiratory
The respiratory system is comprised of structures such as lungs, the pleural cavity,
bronchioles and cilia. Alveolar sacs outlining the lungs aid in the exchange of essential oxygen
and wastes such as carbon dioxide. Cilia aid in dust entrapment and moistening of the inhaled
air. Respiratory malfunctioning due to ageing can result in chest tightening, breathlessness and
reduced gas exchange (Moschos, Usher and Lindsay 2017).

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Digestive
The digestive system comprises of all the essential organs stretching from the mouth to
the anus, such as the esophagus, stomach, liver, gall bladder, pancreas and intestines. The
digestive system is responsible for the ingestion, absorption and metabolism of essential macro
and micro nutrients and hence, deficits in ageing pertaining to compromised gastric juice
production and abdominal distensions results in increased digestive disorders, nutrient mal-
absorption and deficiencies in the aged individual (Rehfeld, Nylander and Karnov 2017).
Excretory
The excretory system comprises of structures such as kidneys, urethra, nephrons and
bladder and are responsible for the filtration of blood and removal of wastes (Cullen-McEwen,
Sutherland and Black 2016).
Locomotor
Muscles, bones, ligaments and tendons aid in the movement and locomotion of the
individual through coordinated activities with the nervous system (Song et al. 2016).
Integumentary
The integumentary system consists of the largest organ of the human body, that is our
skin, which aids in protection from damage, sensory perception, absorption of substances and
excretion in the form of sweating. The skin is also essential in the regulation of body
temperature, fluid balance and sebum levels (Pang, Schiefer and Beasley 2017).

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Sensory
The sensory system aids us in the perception of our surroundings through sensory organs
such as the eyes, nose, ears, skin and tongue by serving as key receptors of a number of nerve
endings (Dey et al. 2015).
Reproductive
The reproductive system aids in the proliferation of life and initiation of growth and
developmental through hormonal and pubertal changes using structures such as the ovaries and
testes (Maggi et al. 2016).
Metabolism
The body’s metabolic processes comprises of processes which convert or metabolize
food components into energy. Anabolic processes aid in muscle growth and development
whereas the catabolic processes initiate muscle breakdown and wear and tear. The body’s
metabolism is facilitated through food consumption, physical exercise and processes such as
digestion and respiration. Physical activities such as exercise enhance energy metabolism.
However, with age, loss of muscle mass and increase in inflammatory processes result in reduced
metabolism, increased catabolism and the resultant loss in muscle mass and fatigue in aged
individuals (Guan et al. 2018).
Growth
Growth of the human body is initiated by the growth hormone or somatotropin which is
released by the pituary gland, through the regeneration and proliferation of cells. However,
malfunctioning of the growth hormone, fueled by oxidative stress and inflammatory processes

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may lead to abnormal proliferation of tissues and blood vessels resulting in tumor formation
(Carter-Su, Schwartz and Argetsinger 2016).
Interactions
As evident from the above extensive discussion, every organ system of the body is
interconnected and interactive. The pulmonary system aids in gas exchange which is
accompanied by transport of oxygen and collection of carbon dioxide from the cardiovascular
system. The digestive system is fueled by oxygen consumption which further facilitates nutrient
breakdown and metabolism, which is assimilated from the circulatory system to various organs
of the body (Mescher, Neff and King 2017). The waste materials are collected and filtered out by
the excretion system whereas the sensory system aids in our perception of hunger, respiration
and physiological processes such as movement and locomotion which is further facilitated by the
muscular and skeletal system. This highlights the interactive processes of various body systems
which must be considered by healthcare professionals providing geriatric care (Salleck and John
2017).
Task 2
Everyday Functioning: Anatomy and Functioning
Breathing
Breathing and the associated physiological processes is initiated by the pulmonary system
which is facilitated through organs such as the lungs, bronchial tubes, bronchioles and alveolar
sacs, followed by the pleural cavity which maintains fluidity in pulmonary expansion due to
presence of the pleural fluid. Upon breathing, we inhale oxygen which travels across the

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bronchial tubes and bronchioles which are lined by cilia – tiny hair like substances which entrap
impurities, filter the inhaled gas and add moisture (Lambertz, Bertozzo and Sander 2018). The
air then travels to the alveolar sacs, where alveolar epithelial tissues expanded, allow the gaseous
diffusion of the oxygen into the alveolar blood vessels in exchange of wasteful carbon dioxide, to
further travel to the other sections of the body. In this way, the anatomical functioning associated
with breathing aid in the transport of vital oxygen to various organs of the body, in exchange of
carbon dioxide through lymphatic diffusion, to be further exhaled (Aschner and Downey 2016).
Eating
Daily activities such as eating is essential for the absorption and transportation of
essential nutrients in the entire body. Upon food consumption, teeth, tongue and amylase in
saliva masticate and chew the food to breakdown starches and easily transport the bolus to the
other digestive organs (Brownlee et al. 2018). Peristalsis initiates transport of the bolus to the
stomach and intestines where gastric acid, enzymes and bile aid in nutrient breakdown,
absorption and assimilation. Columnar epithelium such as the villi absorb nutrients from the
small and large intestines leading to transport of nutrients to all the cells and tissues of the body.
In this way, anatomical functioning associated with eating aids in the maintenance of strength,
vitality and sustainable through life stages of growth and development (Szilagyi 2015).
Excreting
Excretion implies discharge of toxic and harmful waste products from the body, through
organ systems such as the kidneys, lungs and skin. The skin aids in the excretion of substances
through sweat glands or sweating, while the lung utilizes alveolar exchanges to excrete harmful
carbon dioxide from the body. Excretion in the form of urine is also performed by the nephrons
in the kidney, using processes of glomerular filtration (Maiuolo et al. 2016). Further, to filter

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waste products such as urea from existing body fluids, kidneys also utilize anatomical
functioning processes such as tubular secretion which results in transferring of substances to the
renal tubular tumen from the peritubular capillaries which further leads to the excretion of
selective waste products. The anatomical processes which drive such secretions are passive
diffusion and active transport (Mente et al. 2018).
Physical Activity
Upon conductance of intense bouts of physical activity such as exercise, the body
responses by increased blood circulation and pulmonary gas exchange resulting in increased
oxygen consumption and transport to essential muscles of the body to further facilitate the
aggravation in movement. There is shift in regulation of glucose since glucagon response results
in glycogenolysis of glycogen stores in muscle myofibrils further resulting in high glucose
concentrations in the blood to further fuel physical activity. Further exercise may result in an
anaerobic state where muscles engage in oxidation of free fatty acids and an aggravation of the
TCA cycle. This results in increased lactic acid production, muscle stiffness and muscle fatigue
after periods of intense exercise and physical activity (Sylow et al. 2017).
Regulation
The internal body temperature is regulate by excretory mechanisms such as sweating
resulting in fluid and heat loss from the dermal tissues outlined by sweat and sebaceous epithelial
tissues. To regulate levels of glucose in the blood, the hormones insulin and glucagon play a key
role. In situations of high blood glucose, insulin aids in the metabolism of the same to the
surrounding cells and tissues whereas glucagon helps in the release of glucose from glycogen
stores in response to starvation and low nutrient consumption (Albrechtsen et al. 2017). Heart
rate and blood pressure is regulated by the rennin angiotensin aldosterone (RAAS) system which

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enhances baroreceptor functioning and anti-diuretic hormone resulting in reduced urine output,
vasocontriction and increased sodium mobilization resulting in increased heart rate and blood
pressure. The RAAS procedure is also responsible for regulating the urine output of the human
body. The rates of respiration is regulated by the pons of the brain, situated beneath the medulla.
The pons regulates the speed of involuntary respiration through transmission of signals exerted
by the pneumotaxic centre (Epstein et al. 2015).
Coordination
Bodily processes of coordination are undertaken through endocrinal secretion. Hormones
such as leptin and ghrelin are responsible for the regulation of appetite where leptin initiates
satiety and increased adiposity resulting in halting of food consumption and ghrelin initiates
hunger and appetite leading to food consumption – which is regulated overall by the
hypothalamus. Endocrinal regulatory functions of glucose also include the coordinated
functioning of glucagon and insulin resulting in monitoring of blood glucose levels. Endocrinal
glands such as adrenal, release corticosteroids, epinephrine and norepinephrine which further
initiate the fight or flight process of the autonomic nervous system (Rohner-Jeanrenaud and
Nogueiras 2015).
Homoeostasis
Homoeostasis is a group of regulatory processes which aim to ensure stability and
equilibrium between body systems to prevent the aggravation of fatal symptoms and continue the
survival of the concerned organism. To maintain such equilibrium and stability in body processes
homoeostasis in the body is regulated by the coordinated efforts of the nervous as well as
endocrinal systems (Couto, Wood and Barber 2016). A major example of homoeostasis can be
observed in the regulation of body temperature at the optimum stable temperatures of 37C -