Physiological Principles for Health and Social Care - Task 2

This assignment focuses on physiological principles within health and social care, specifically addressing various aspects of blood, fractures, the pulmonary system, and the nervous system. It details the different components of blood, highlighting the distinctions between red and white blood cells and their respective lifecycles. The assignment further explains greenstick and compound fractures, contrasting their characteristics and healing processes. It describes the structure of the pulmonary system and differentiates capillaries from arteries and veins, emphasizing the connection between the pulmonary and cardiovascular systems. Finally, it explores the differences between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, outlining their structural and functional distinctions. Desklib offers a platform for students to access this assignment and other resources to support their learning.

Task 2
Blood
2.1 different parts of blood
Blood is a connective tissue in the body with several parts (Rodak & Carr, 2015). It
functions to provide communication between cells and their environment. It makes up 7 % of the
body weight and is always in motion in the body (Kim, Susan, Scott, & Heddwen, 2010). Blood
is composed of the fluid component which is a straw-colored fluid called plasma and a cellular
component with several cells suspended in plasma (Waugh & Grant, 2014). 55% of blood is
plasma while the rest of the cells make up 45%.
Plasma is made up of 90% water while the rest includes:
 Plasma proteins such as albumin, clotting factors, globulins, and fibrinogen.
 Salts and electrolytes such as sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, potassium,
magnesium, iron, phosphate, iodine, cobalt among others.
 Digested food nutrients including glucose and other monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty
acids, and vitamins.
 Waste material such as urea and creatinine.
 Enzymes and hormones being transported to target organs.
 Dissolved gases including carbon dioxide, oxygen, and nitrogen.
The cellular component is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.

2.2 Differences between red blood cells and white blood cells
Red blood cells are disc-shaped biconcave non-nucleated cells that function in to carry
oxygen around the body to the tissues. They contain hemoglobin molecules in a matrix of protein
chains. The erythrocytes are small measuring about 7 microns in diameter and are flexible to be
able to squeeze through the tiniest capillaries (Waugh & Grant, 2014).
White blood cells, on the other hand, are the immune cells of the body. They are
nucleated, large in size and some contain granules in their cytoplasm (Waugh & Grant, 2014).
Those containing granules are termed granulocytes or polymorphonuclear lymphocytes and
include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. Those without are termed agranulocytes ad
include monocytes and lymphocytes. Their main function is immunity against microbes and
other invading organisms and foreign bodies (Rodak & Carr, 2015).
2.3 Lifecycle of a red blood cell
They are formed in the bone marrow through erythropoiesis whereby a progenitor cell is
induced to differentiate into a red cell with influence from erythropoietin. Erythropoiesis takes
about 7 days. During this process, the red cell reduces in size and loses its nucleus (Haase, 2013).
On maturation, the red blood cell enters circulation where the lifespan in circulation is 120 days.
Their destruction is done by the reticuloendothelial system mainly the spleen, bone marrow, and
the liver. Aging red cells are more susceptible to hemolysis. However, the released end products
are recycled except bilirubin which is excreted in bile. Iron released is retained to form more
hemoglobin (Waugh & Grant, 2014).

Fractures
2.4 Greenstick fractures and compound fractures
A greenstick fracture is a fracture pattern seen in children who still have softer bones.
The pattern of fracture involves a cortical break on one side and a bend on the other, resembling
the pattern seen when trying to break a fresh green stick (Solomon, Warwick, & Nayagam, 2010).
These fractures are generally not as serious and treatment involves immobilization of the limb in
a cast, analgesics for pain and reassuring the patient. The fractures heal faster and remodeling
occurs straightening the bone (Solomon, Warwick, & Nayagam, 2010). A greenstick fracture will
heal by primary intention due to the mobilization of osteoblasts at the contact points (Solomon,
Warwick, & Nayagam, 2010)
A compound or open fracture is a fracture with an open wound exposing the bone to the
external environment (Solomon, Warwick, & Nayagam, 2010). This fracture is deemed dirty due to
contamination of the wound. The force required to produce this fracture may be from outside
such in high energy trauma or inside as in penetration of the bone through soft tissues to the
outside. Treatment involves a multidisciplinary team. There is an initial assessment using ABCD
to rule out any major associated injuries that could lead to the loss of life. The fracture site is
debrided and the fracture reduced using an external fixator as the patient is stabilized before any
definitive management is done. the antibiotic cover is an important aspect due to the
development of sepsis and wound contamination. After the wound cover is sufficient, internal
fixation through surgery is the definitive treatment of choice (Solomon, Warwick, & Nayagam,
2010). The compound fracture usually heals by secondary intention which I healing by callus
formation. This is by laying of new bone by the periosteum (Solomon, Warwick, & Nayagam, 2010).

Lungs and Blood Vessels
2.5 Structure of the pulmonary system
The pulmonary system includes the pulmonary tree and organs involved in respiration.
The pulmonary tree starts with the nose, the pharynx, larynx, trachea, two main bronchi one for
each lung, bronchioles, and the alveoli which make up the lung. Accessory organs include the
muscles of respiration including the diaphragm (Sinnatamby, 2011).
2.6 How capillaries are different from arteries and veins.
Capillaries are small blood vessels that link arteries and veins through various capillary
beds. Their structure is however different from that of arteries and vein. They lack an intimal
lining, are small lumen vessels made up of one cell thick walls (Waugh & Grant, 2014). Blood in
the capillaries is a mixture of oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood with either end of the
capillary bed having different oxygenation levels, unlike arteries which carry oxygenated blood
and veins which carry deoxygenated blood (Waugh & Grant, 2014).
2.7 connection between the pulmonary system and cardiovascular system.
The pulmonary artery carries blood from the right ventricle to the lungs where
oxygenation occurs and the blood returns to the heart through the pulmonary vein to the left
ventricle where it is pumped to the rest of the body. This essentially means that at one point, the
entire cardiac output has to pass through the pulmonary circulation (Waugh & Grant, 2014). This
relationship is evidenced by diseases of the pulmonary system like COPD which causes
pulmonary hypertension will eventually cause backpressure to the heart leading to right heart
failure a condition called cor-pulmonale (Gao et al., 2012).

Nervous system
2.8 Difference between sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.
These are the divisions of the autonomic nervous system. They have structural and
functional differences and usually work in antagonism. The sympathetic nervous system is
usually activated in response to a fight or flight situation and is the bodies main defense against
stressful environments while the parasympathetic nervous system is usually active during rest
(Waugh & Grant, 2014).
Structurally each division has a preganglionic and post-ganglionic neuron. In the
sympathetic system, the cell bodies of the preganglionic neurons are in the spinal cord, in the
lateral grey matter from the first thoracic to the third lumbar vertebra. The parasympathetic
system has its preganglionic cell bodies in the brain or the spinal cord at the sacral level. The
sympathetic system has its post-ganglionic cell bodies in ganglia in a chain along both sides of
the vertebral column. The parasympathetic postganglionic cell bodies are either in ganglia or on
the wall of the supplied organ (Waugh & Grant, 2014).

References
Gao, Y., Du, X., Liang, L., Cao, L., Yang, Q., & Li, K. (2012). Evaluation of right ventricular
function by 64-row CT in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and cor
pulmonale. European journal of radiology, 81(2), 345-353.
Haase, V. H. (2013). Regulation of erythropoiesis by hypoxia-inducible factors. Blood
reviews, 27(1), 41-53.
Kim, E. B., Susan, M. B., Scott, B., & Heddwen, L. B. (2010). Ganong’s review of medical
physiology.
Rodak, B. F., & Carr, J. H. (2015). Clinical Hematology Atlas-E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences.
Sinnatamby, C. S. (2011). Last's Anatomy: Regional and Applied. Elsevier Health Sciences.
Solomon, L., Warwick, D., & Nayagam, S. (Eds.). (2010). Apley's system of orthopedics and fractures. CRC
press.
Waugh, A., & Grant, A. (2014). Ross & Wilson Anatomy and Physiology in Health and Illness E-Book.
Elsevier Health Sciences.