Comprehensive Report on Plasmodium falciparum and Malaria Transmission
VerifiedAdded on 2022/02/25
|23
|7719
|73
Report
AI Summary
This report provides a comprehensive overview of Plasmodium falciparum, the parasite responsible for malaria, a significant global health concern. It details the parasite's life cycle, beginning with transmission by the Anopheles mosquito, the sporozoite stage, and the subsequent invasion of the liver and red blood cells. The report explains the stages of asexual and sexual reproduction within the human host, including the formation of merozoites and gametocytes. It also examines the transmission process, emphasizing the roles of the vector, human host, and environmental factors. Furthermore, the report discusses the global prevalence of malaria, highlighting the areas most affected, such as sub-Saharan Africa, and the groups at highest risk, including children under five and pregnant women. The report delves into the genetic and acquired factors that influence an individual's susceptibility to malaria, including the sickle cell trait and acquired immunity. The report also touches on the impact of malaria on public health, the symptoms of the disease, and the importance of early detection and treatment.
Contribute Materials
Your contribution can guide someone’s learning journey. Share your
documents today.
PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM (MALARIA)
INTRODUCTION
The genus of protozoa (unicellular eukaryotes) Plasmodium includes chromalveolate - protists of
the phylum - Apicomplexa, order - Haemosporida, family - Plasmodidae. Their members of the
genus are obligate parasites of vertebrate hosts; Plasmodium spp. includes Plasmodium
falciparum, Plasmodium knowlesi, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium vivax, and the two
closely related species Plasmodium ovale curtisi and Plasmodium ovale wallikeri, which are
genetically different. In typical human hosts, each of these six parasites causes an acute febrile
illness of varying severity and duration known as malaria.
Malaria is a global infectious disease that continues to be one of the leading causes of morbidity
and mortality in developing countries. The most severe and fatal malaria is caused mainly by
Plasmodium falciparum. Female mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles exclusively transmit
Plasmodium falciparum, feed on blood for egg production and these blood meals link humans
and host mosquitoes in the parasite's life cycle. "The successful development of the malaria
parasite in the mosquito (from the "gametocyte" stage to the "sporozoite" stage) depends on
several factors" (CDC, 2019). Of the approximately 430 species of Anopheles, only 3040
transmit malaria in nature.
Anopheles mosquitoes' life cycle is of four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The first three
stages are aquatic, depending on the species and the ambient temperature. The female Anopheles
mosquito that bites can transmit malaria. Male mosquitoes cannot transmit malaria or other
diseases; they do not bite and. Adult female mosquitoes are generally short-lived, with only a
tiny fraction living long enough (more than ten days in tropical regions) to transmit malaria.
Unlike the human host, the mosquito host does not suffer markedly from the presence of the
parasites.
Malaria is caused by Plasmodium falciparum (also known as malignant or falciparum malaria).
However, drugs are available for treatment, it is responsible for more than 90% of global malaria
mortality, and therefore it remains a significant threat to global public health. Malaria is endemic
in more than 90 countries and affects around 40% of the world's population. P. falciparum is
INTRODUCTION
The genus of protozoa (unicellular eukaryotes) Plasmodium includes chromalveolate - protists of
the phylum - Apicomplexa, order - Haemosporida, family - Plasmodidae. Their members of the
genus are obligate parasites of vertebrate hosts; Plasmodium spp. includes Plasmodium
falciparum, Plasmodium knowlesi, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium vivax, and the two
closely related species Plasmodium ovale curtisi and Plasmodium ovale wallikeri, which are
genetically different. In typical human hosts, each of these six parasites causes an acute febrile
illness of varying severity and duration known as malaria.
Malaria is a global infectious disease that continues to be one of the leading causes of morbidity
and mortality in developing countries. The most severe and fatal malaria is caused mainly by
Plasmodium falciparum. Female mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles exclusively transmit
Plasmodium falciparum, feed on blood for egg production and these blood meals link humans
and host mosquitoes in the parasite's life cycle. "The successful development of the malaria
parasite in the mosquito (from the "gametocyte" stage to the "sporozoite" stage) depends on
several factors" (CDC, 2019). Of the approximately 430 species of Anopheles, only 3040
transmit malaria in nature.
Anopheles mosquitoes' life cycle is of four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The first three
stages are aquatic, depending on the species and the ambient temperature. The female Anopheles
mosquito that bites can transmit malaria. Male mosquitoes cannot transmit malaria or other
diseases; they do not bite and. Adult female mosquitoes are generally short-lived, with only a
tiny fraction living long enough (more than ten days in tropical regions) to transmit malaria.
Unlike the human host, the mosquito host does not suffer markedly from the presence of the
parasites.
Malaria is caused by Plasmodium falciparum (also known as malignant or falciparum malaria).
However, drugs are available for treatment, it is responsible for more than 90% of global malaria
mortality, and therefore it remains a significant threat to global public health. Malaria is endemic
in more than 90 countries and affects around 40% of the world's population. P. falciparum is
Secure Best Marks with AI Grader
Need help grading? Try our AI Grader for instant feedback on your assignments.
prevalent in the WHO African region, accounting for 99.7% of malaria cases; it is also
widespread in Southeast Asia, the eastern Mediterranean, and the western Pacific.
The groups most affected by malaria in high transmission areas are children under five years of
age, whose deaths account for 67% of deaths from malaria globally. In low transmission areas,
all age groups are at risk due to low immunity. Its management and prognosis depend on the
knowledge of a possible diagnosis, early detection, and timely effective treatment.
LIFE CYCLE OF PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM
The malaria pathogen is transmitted to the human host when an infected female Anopheles
mosquito ingests blood, and at the same time, passes a small number of sporozoites contained in
its salivary glands into human skin.
In humans, the agile sporozoite enters the bloodstream, allowing it to reach the liver and thus
escape host immunity or drainage through the lymphatic system. Once the sporozoites have
reached the hepatic sinusoids, they cross the sinusoidal barrier and invade the hepatocytes, in
which they build a parasitophorous vacuole and differentiate in the first round of asexual
replication; The parasites grow and multiply for two to several days, first in the liver cells and
then in red blood cells. Once in the bloodstream, the merozoites rapidly invade circulating red
blood cells (RBCs), initiating the repeated cycle of asexual replication. The parasite goes through
the ring and trophozoite stages for 48 hours before finally replicating in the schizont stage
(schizogony) in 8 to 32 daughter merozoites. At this point, the parasitized erythrocytes (pRBCs)
breakthrough and release merozoites into the circulation, initiating another round of asexual
replication. During each cycle, a small subset of parasites deviate from asexual reproduction and
instead produce sexual offspring that separate the following process into male and female sexual
forms known as gametocytes. Male and female gametocytes re-enter the peripheral circulation
(although evidence suggests that the bone marrow is the primary site of gametocyte maturation),
becoming competent for mosquito infection. Mature gametocytes can circulate in human blood
for several days, maximizing their chances of transmitting to mosquitoes. A female Anopheles
mosquito ingests gametocytes as she feeds on an infected human.
widespread in Southeast Asia, the eastern Mediterranean, and the western Pacific.
The groups most affected by malaria in high transmission areas are children under five years of
age, whose deaths account for 67% of deaths from malaria globally. In low transmission areas,
all age groups are at risk due to low immunity. Its management and prognosis depend on the
knowledge of a possible diagnosis, early detection, and timely effective treatment.
LIFE CYCLE OF PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM
The malaria pathogen is transmitted to the human host when an infected female Anopheles
mosquito ingests blood, and at the same time, passes a small number of sporozoites contained in
its salivary glands into human skin.
In humans, the agile sporozoite enters the bloodstream, allowing it to reach the liver and thus
escape host immunity or drainage through the lymphatic system. Once the sporozoites have
reached the hepatic sinusoids, they cross the sinusoidal barrier and invade the hepatocytes, in
which they build a parasitophorous vacuole and differentiate in the first round of asexual
replication; The parasites grow and multiply for two to several days, first in the liver cells and
then in red blood cells. Once in the bloodstream, the merozoites rapidly invade circulating red
blood cells (RBCs), initiating the repeated cycle of asexual replication. The parasite goes through
the ring and trophozoite stages for 48 hours before finally replicating in the schizont stage
(schizogony) in 8 to 32 daughter merozoites. At this point, the parasitized erythrocytes (pRBCs)
breakthrough and release merozoites into the circulation, initiating another round of asexual
replication. During each cycle, a small subset of parasites deviate from asexual reproduction and
instead produce sexual offspring that separate the following process into male and female sexual
forms known as gametocytes. Male and female gametocytes re-enter the peripheral circulation
(although evidence suggests that the bone marrow is the primary site of gametocyte maturation),
becoming competent for mosquito infection. Mature gametocytes can circulate in human blood
for several days, maximizing their chances of transmitting to mosquitoes. A female Anopheles
mosquito ingests gametocytes as she feeds on an infected human.
In the mosquito's stomach, fertilization of a macrogamete by a microgamete results in the
formation of a zygote, which undergoes meiosis and becomes an invasive mobile ookinete that
traverses the epithelial layer of the midgut wall to form an oocyst. When the oocyst wall bursts,
it penetrates the hemolymph to enter the salivary gland. From there, the sporozoites reach the
mosquito's salivary glands and invade the gland, where they remain until they are transmitted to
a new human host.
When the Anopheles mosquito ingests blood in human, anticoagulant saliva is injected along
with the sporozoites that travel to the liver in the blood, thus continuing the life cycle of malaria.
Parasites in the blood stage are responsible for the clinical manifestations of the disease. Thus,
the infected mosquito transmits the disease from one person to another (as a "vector"), while
infected people transmit the parasite to the mosquito. Unlike the human host, the vector mosquito
does not suffer from the presence of parasites.
TRANSMISSION OF MALARIA (Plasmodium falciparum)
Malaria transmission depends on the vector, the human host, and the environment. When an
infected female Anopheles mosquito bites a human, a small amount of blood is drawn, so the
sporozoites (microscopic malaria parasites) enter the peripheral bloodstream and are taken up by
the hepatocytes, where they form a pre-erythrocyte asexual (liver stage) in the liver go through
schizonts up to 2 weeks before the start of the sanguine stage.
Within red blood cells, the merozoite develops through the process of erythrocytic schizogony
into an erythrocytic schizont (blood-stage) or a spherical or banana-shaped mononuclear
gametocyte. The time required for erythrocyte schizogony, which determines the time between
the release of successive generations of merozoites, is responsible for the classic periodicity of
fever in malaria. However, the clinical symptoms are mainly due to the asexual stages of the
parasite's multiplication in human blood. The time between infection with the pathogenic
parasite and the appearance of malaria symptoms is called malaria incubation. The infected
person may feel normal for 7 to 14 days when infected with P. falciparum because it has a
shorter incubation period.
formation of a zygote, which undergoes meiosis and becomes an invasive mobile ookinete that
traverses the epithelial layer of the midgut wall to form an oocyst. When the oocyst wall bursts,
it penetrates the hemolymph to enter the salivary gland. From there, the sporozoites reach the
mosquito's salivary glands and invade the gland, where they remain until they are transmitted to
a new human host.
When the Anopheles mosquito ingests blood in human, anticoagulant saliva is injected along
with the sporozoites that travel to the liver in the blood, thus continuing the life cycle of malaria.
Parasites in the blood stage are responsible for the clinical manifestations of the disease. Thus,
the infected mosquito transmits the disease from one person to another (as a "vector"), while
infected people transmit the parasite to the mosquito. Unlike the human host, the vector mosquito
does not suffer from the presence of parasites.
TRANSMISSION OF MALARIA (Plasmodium falciparum)
Malaria transmission depends on the vector, the human host, and the environment. When an
infected female Anopheles mosquito bites a human, a small amount of blood is drawn, so the
sporozoites (microscopic malaria parasites) enter the peripheral bloodstream and are taken up by
the hepatocytes, where they form a pre-erythrocyte asexual (liver stage) in the liver go through
schizonts up to 2 weeks before the start of the sanguine stage.
Within red blood cells, the merozoite develops through the process of erythrocytic schizogony
into an erythrocytic schizont (blood-stage) or a spherical or banana-shaped mononuclear
gametocyte. The time required for erythrocyte schizogony, which determines the time between
the release of successive generations of merozoites, is responsible for the classic periodicity of
fever in malaria. However, the clinical symptoms are mainly due to the asexual stages of the
parasite's multiplication in human blood. The time between infection with the pathogenic
parasite and the appearance of malaria symptoms is called malaria incubation. The infected
person may feel normal for 7 to 14 days when infected with P. falciparum because it has a
shorter incubation period.
Because malaria is found in the red blood cells of an infected person, malaria can rarely be
transmitted through organ transplants, blood transfusions, or sharing blood-contaminated needles
or syringes, and malaria can also be transmitted from mother to fetus before or during delivery.
The ability of the human body to prevent the invasion of malaria pathogens is an essential factor
in the transmission of malaria and depends on climatic conditions; Mosquito survival is based on
precipitation patterns, temperature, and humidity. Transmission is most intense where the
mosquito has a longer life (so that the parasite has time to complete its development in the
mosquito).
Where does malaria transmission occur?
For Plasmodium falciparum (malaria) transmission to occur, conditions must be such that all
three components of the malaria life cycle are present:
Anopheles mosquitoes, which can feed on humans, and in which the parasites spend half
their cycle life of "guest without the host."
People can complete it. Anopheles mosquitoes can bite that and in which the parasites, as
"vortex hosts," can complete half their life cycle
Malaria parasites.
Malaria occurs worldwide but is rare in the United States. It is common in developing countries
and areas with warm temperatures and high humidity, including Africa, Central, and South
America, the Dominican Republic, Haiti and other regions of the Caribbean, Eastern -Europe,
South Asia, and some regions in Oceania.
In many malaria-endemic countries, P. falciparum (malaria) transmission does not occur in all
parts of the country. Transmission does not occur even within tropical and subtropical areas; at
very great heights; during the colder seasons in some regions; in deserts (no oases), and in some
countries where transmission has been interrupted by successful control/elimination programs.
The disease is still widespread in the tropics and subtropics and the warmer regions closer to the
equator. In these areas, malaria transmission can be endemic and predictable every year, or an
epidemic, which occurs sporadically if conditions are right. Endemic malaria transmission can
transmitted through organ transplants, blood transfusions, or sharing blood-contaminated needles
or syringes, and malaria can also be transmitted from mother to fetus before or during delivery.
The ability of the human body to prevent the invasion of malaria pathogens is an essential factor
in the transmission of malaria and depends on climatic conditions; Mosquito survival is based on
precipitation patterns, temperature, and humidity. Transmission is most intense where the
mosquito has a longer life (so that the parasite has time to complete its development in the
mosquito).
Where does malaria transmission occur?
For Plasmodium falciparum (malaria) transmission to occur, conditions must be such that all
three components of the malaria life cycle are present:
Anopheles mosquitoes, which can feed on humans, and in which the parasites spend half
their cycle life of "guest without the host."
People can complete it. Anopheles mosquitoes can bite that and in which the parasites, as
"vortex hosts," can complete half their life cycle
Malaria parasites.
Malaria occurs worldwide but is rare in the United States. It is common in developing countries
and areas with warm temperatures and high humidity, including Africa, Central, and South
America, the Dominican Republic, Haiti and other regions of the Caribbean, Eastern -Europe,
South Asia, and some regions in Oceania.
In many malaria-endemic countries, P. falciparum (malaria) transmission does not occur in all
parts of the country. Transmission does not occur even within tropical and subtropical areas; at
very great heights; during the colder seasons in some regions; in deserts (no oases), and in some
countries where transmission has been interrupted by successful control/elimination programs.
The disease is still widespread in the tropics and subtropics and the warmer regions closer to the
equator. In these areas, malaria transmission can be endemic and predictable every year, or an
epidemic, which occurs sporadically if conditions are right. Endemic malaria transmission can
Secure Best Marks with AI Grader
Need help grading? Try our AI Grader for instant feedback on your assignments.
occur year-round or seasonally. In some regions of Africa, 90 to 100 percent of children under
five years old have a constant stream of malaria parasites in their blood. Since naturally acquired
immunity develops with increased exposure, malaria is more common in children in endemic
areas. On the other hand, naturally obtained immunity falls between epidemics, and malaria
affects all age groups in outbreaks.
The highest transmission is found in Africa, sub-Sahara, and parts of Oceania such as Papua
New Guinea. This parasite is widespread in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The WHO
African Region continues to bear a disproportionate share of the global malaria challenges. The
region, in 2019 was home to 94% of all malaria cases and deaths; about half of all malaria deaths
worldwide occurred in 6 countries: Nigeria (23%), the Democratic Republic of the Congo (11%),
the United Republic of Tanzania (5%), Burkina Faso (4%), Mozambique (4%) and Niger (4ch).
Economic development and public health efforts have eradicated malaria in many temperate
areas, such as Western Europe and the United States. However, most of these areas are home to
Anopheles mosquitoes that can transmit P. falciparum (malaria), and reintroducing the disease is
a constant threat.
Who is most likely to be infected by P. falciparum (malaria) and the
circumstances under which they may be infected?
According to the World's latest Malaria Report, released on November 30, 2020, there were 229
million malaria cases in 2019, compared with 228 million patients in 2018. The estimated
number of deaths from malaria in 2019 was 409,000, compared to 411,000 deaths in the year.
2018 4,444 people prone to mosquito bites infected with P. falciparum are at increased risk of
dying from malaria. People at high risk of infection with P. falciparum include:
A human who has little or no immunity to P. falciparum (malaria).
Young children are more likely to become very sick and die.
Travelers from malaria-free regions with little or no immunity are very vulnerable to areas
with high P. falciparum (malaria) infection rates.
five years old have a constant stream of malaria parasites in their blood. Since naturally acquired
immunity develops with increased exposure, malaria is more common in children in endemic
areas. On the other hand, naturally obtained immunity falls between epidemics, and malaria
affects all age groups in outbreaks.
The highest transmission is found in Africa, sub-Sahara, and parts of Oceania such as Papua
New Guinea. This parasite is widespread in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The WHO
African Region continues to bear a disproportionate share of the global malaria challenges. The
region, in 2019 was home to 94% of all malaria cases and deaths; about half of all malaria deaths
worldwide occurred in 6 countries: Nigeria (23%), the Democratic Republic of the Congo (11%),
the United Republic of Tanzania (5%), Burkina Faso (4%), Mozambique (4%) and Niger (4ch).
Economic development and public health efforts have eradicated malaria in many temperate
areas, such as Western Europe and the United States. However, most of these areas are home to
Anopheles mosquitoes that can transmit P. falciparum (malaria), and reintroducing the disease is
a constant threat.
Who is most likely to be infected by P. falciparum (malaria) and the
circumstances under which they may be infected?
According to the World's latest Malaria Report, released on November 30, 2020, there were 229
million malaria cases in 2019, compared with 228 million patients in 2018. The estimated
number of deaths from malaria in 2019 was 409,000, compared to 411,000 deaths in the year.
2018 4,444 people prone to mosquito bites infected with P. falciparum are at increased risk of
dying from malaria. People at high risk of infection with P. falciparum include:
A human who has little or no immunity to P. falciparum (malaria).
Young children are more likely to become very sick and die.
Travelers from malaria-free regions with little or no immunity are very vulnerable to areas
with high P. falciparum (malaria) infection rates.
Pregnant women with low immunity and HIV-infected pregnant women are at high risk of
severe anemia and impaired fetal development.
In rural and riverine areas with limited access to health care services, people are at high risk
for malaria infection.
An estimated 90% of deaths due to malaria occur in Africa south of the Sahara, with most
children of five years and below in 2019; they accounted for 67% (274 000) of all malaria deaths
worldwide. Malaria infection results in high rates of miscarriage and causes over 10% of
maternal deaths, soaring to a 50% rate in cases of the severe disease annually. An estimated
200,000 infants die annually due to infection during pregnancy. Biological traits (innate and
acquired) and behavioral traits can affect an individual's risk of malaria and the ecology of
malaria as a whole on a larger scale.
HUMAN FACTORS AND PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM (MALARIA)
TRANSMISSION
Genetic Factors
Biological properties that exist from birth can be protected from certain types of malaria. Two
genetic factors are epidemiologically important, both of which are associated with human
erythrocytes. Individuals with the sickle cell trait (a heterozygote of the abnormal hemoglobin
gene HbS) enjoy physical benefits because they are relatively protected from Plasmodium
falciparum. Because P. falciparum malaria has long been one of the leading causes of death in
Africa, and the sickle cell trait is now more common in Africans and people of African descent
than in other populations. In general, hemoglobin-related disorders and other hemoglobin
disorders such as hemoglobin C, thalassemia, and G6PD deficiency are more common in
endemic malaria areas. They are thought to protect against malaria disease.
Acquired Immunity
Acquired immunity has a significant impact on the impact of malaria on individuals and
communities. After repeated malaria attacks, a person can partially develop defensive immunity.
severe anemia and impaired fetal development.
In rural and riverine areas with limited access to health care services, people are at high risk
for malaria infection.
An estimated 90% of deaths due to malaria occur in Africa south of the Sahara, with most
children of five years and below in 2019; they accounted for 67% (274 000) of all malaria deaths
worldwide. Malaria infection results in high rates of miscarriage and causes over 10% of
maternal deaths, soaring to a 50% rate in cases of the severe disease annually. An estimated
200,000 infants die annually due to infection during pregnancy. Biological traits (innate and
acquired) and behavioral traits can affect an individual's risk of malaria and the ecology of
malaria as a whole on a larger scale.
HUMAN FACTORS AND PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM (MALARIA)
TRANSMISSION
Genetic Factors
Biological properties that exist from birth can be protected from certain types of malaria. Two
genetic factors are epidemiologically important, both of which are associated with human
erythrocytes. Individuals with the sickle cell trait (a heterozygote of the abnormal hemoglobin
gene HbS) enjoy physical benefits because they are relatively protected from Plasmodium
falciparum. Because P. falciparum malaria has long been one of the leading causes of death in
Africa, and the sickle cell trait is now more common in Africans and people of African descent
than in other populations. In general, hemoglobin-related disorders and other hemoglobin
disorders such as hemoglobin C, thalassemia, and G6PD deficiency are more common in
endemic malaria areas. They are thought to protect against malaria disease.
Acquired Immunity
Acquired immunity has a significant impact on the impact of malaria on individuals and
communities. After repeated malaria attacks, a person can partially develop defensive immunity.
These "semi-immunized" people are still often infected with malaria parasites, but they do not
develop severe illness and may not even show the typical malaria symptoms.
In areas with a high prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum (most of sub-Saharan Africa),
newborns may be protected by maternal antibodies transmitted through the placenta during the
first few months of life. As these antibodies decrease with time, these young children become
vulnerable to disease and death by malaria. If they survive repeated infections to an older age (25
years), they will have reached a protective semi-immune status. Thus, young children are a
significant risk group in high transmission areas and are targeted preferentially by malaria
control interventions.
In areas with lower transmission (such as Asia and Latin America), infections are less frequent,
and a more significant proportion of older children and adults have no protective immunity. In
such areas, malaria disease can be found in all age groups, and epidemics can occur.
Pregnancy and malaria
Pregnancy reduces immunity to many infectious diseases. Women who have developed
protective immunity against Plasmodium falciparum tend to lose this protection during
pregnancy, especially during the first and second pregnancies. Malaria during pregnancy is
harmful not only to the mother but also to the foetation. The latter are at high risk of preterm
birth and low birth weight and are less likely to survive in the first few months of life. For this
reason, pregnant women (in addition to minor children) are specially protected by malaria
control programs in endemic countries.
Behavioral Factors
Human behavior is often determined by social and economic reasons and can affect the risk of
malaria in individuals and communities. Example:
Rural poor in malaria-endemic areas often cannot afford shelters or mosquito nets to protect
against mosquitoes. These people often lack the knowledge to recognize malaria and treat it
correctly and at the right time. Cultural beliefs often lead to the use of traditional and
ineffective treatments.
develop severe illness and may not even show the typical malaria symptoms.
In areas with a high prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum (most of sub-Saharan Africa),
newborns may be protected by maternal antibodies transmitted through the placenta during the
first few months of life. As these antibodies decrease with time, these young children become
vulnerable to disease and death by malaria. If they survive repeated infections to an older age (25
years), they will have reached a protective semi-immune status. Thus, young children are a
significant risk group in high transmission areas and are targeted preferentially by malaria
control interventions.
In areas with lower transmission (such as Asia and Latin America), infections are less frequent,
and a more significant proportion of older children and adults have no protective immunity. In
such areas, malaria disease can be found in all age groups, and epidemics can occur.
Pregnancy and malaria
Pregnancy reduces immunity to many infectious diseases. Women who have developed
protective immunity against Plasmodium falciparum tend to lose this protection during
pregnancy, especially during the first and second pregnancies. Malaria during pregnancy is
harmful not only to the mother but also to the foetation. The latter are at high risk of preterm
birth and low birth weight and are less likely to survive in the first few months of life. For this
reason, pregnant women (in addition to minor children) are specially protected by malaria
control programs in endemic countries.
Behavioral Factors
Human behavior is often determined by social and economic reasons and can affect the risk of
malaria in individuals and communities. Example:
Rural poor in malaria-endemic areas often cannot afford shelters or mosquito nets to protect
against mosquitoes. These people often lack the knowledge to recognize malaria and treat it
correctly and at the right time. Cultural beliefs often lead to the use of traditional and
ineffective treatments.
Paraphrase This Document
Need a fresh take? Get an instant paraphrase of this document with our AI Paraphraser
Travelers from non-epidemic areas can choose not to use insect repellents or drugs to prevent
malaria. The reason could be cost, inconvenience, or lack of knowledge.
Human activity can create breeding grounds for larvae (irrigation canals, stagnant water in
construction pits). Agricultural work such as harvesting (which is also affected by climate)
can increase the chances of being bitten by mosquitoes at night. Keeping pets near the home
can provide an alternative blood meal for Anopheles mosquitoes, thus reducing human
exposure.
Wars, migration (voluntary or compulsory), and tourism can expose non-immunized
individuals to an environment high in malaria infection.
Human behavior in endemic countries also determines how successful malaria control is in
reducing infections. Governments in malaria-endemic countries often lack financial means. As a
result, public health workers are often overwhelmed with low wages. They lack equipment,
medicine, training, and supervision. Locals are familiar with these situations and are no longer
dependent on public sector medical facilities.
On the contrary, the private sector is suffering from problems. In many cases, regulatory
measures have not been implemented. This facilitates unlicensed and costly face-to-face
consultations with healthcare providers and the messy prescription and sale of narcotics (some of
which are counterfeit products). Correcting this situation is a significant challenge that must be
addressed to control malaria and eradicate it successfully.
But apart from global warming, P. falciparum (malaria) epidemiology has several other
determinants, including political, economic development, urbanization, population growth, and
migration changes.
DIAGNOSIS OF MALARIA (Plasmodium falciparum)
Diagnosis of malaria usually relies on the detection of parasites in the blood by microscopy.
Additional laboratory findings may include:
Mild anemia.
A slight decrease in platelets (thrombocytopenia).
An increase in bilirubin and aminotransferases.
malaria. The reason could be cost, inconvenience, or lack of knowledge.
Human activity can create breeding grounds for larvae (irrigation canals, stagnant water in
construction pits). Agricultural work such as harvesting (which is also affected by climate)
can increase the chances of being bitten by mosquitoes at night. Keeping pets near the home
can provide an alternative blood meal for Anopheles mosquitoes, thus reducing human
exposure.
Wars, migration (voluntary or compulsory), and tourism can expose non-immunized
individuals to an environment high in malaria infection.
Human behavior in endemic countries also determines how successful malaria control is in
reducing infections. Governments in malaria-endemic countries often lack financial means. As a
result, public health workers are often overwhelmed with low wages. They lack equipment,
medicine, training, and supervision. Locals are familiar with these situations and are no longer
dependent on public sector medical facilities.
On the contrary, the private sector is suffering from problems. In many cases, regulatory
measures have not been implemented. This facilitates unlicensed and costly face-to-face
consultations with healthcare providers and the messy prescription and sale of narcotics (some of
which are counterfeit products). Correcting this situation is a significant challenge that must be
addressed to control malaria and eradicate it successfully.
But apart from global warming, P. falciparum (malaria) epidemiology has several other
determinants, including political, economic development, urbanization, population growth, and
migration changes.
DIAGNOSIS OF MALARIA (Plasmodium falciparum)
Diagnosis of malaria usually relies on the detection of parasites in the blood by microscopy.
Additional laboratory findings may include:
Mild anemia.
A slight decrease in platelets (thrombocytopenia).
An increase in bilirubin and aminotransferases.
Diagnosis of malaria requires a high level of suspicion. People who have a fever, visit malaria-
endemic areas, receive blood transfusions, or receive intravenous medication should consider
malaria. 95% of people infected with malaria develop the underlying disease within six weeks of
exposure. However, some people have a direct attack within one year of exposure, while others
recurrence malaria within 23 years of exposure. There is a possibility. Therefore, people who
have recently contracted a febrile illness should be screened for malaria. A definitive malaria
diagnosis generally requires direct observation of malaria parasites on thick and thin blood
smears stained with Giemsa. Thick blood films are more difficult to interpret than thin blood
films, but they are much more sensitive because more blood is tested. A thin blood smear
showing parasites in red blood cells determines the parasite-infected. The existence of diagnosis
forms varies greatly depending on the life cycle stage, especially the onset of the disease. In P.
falciparum malaria, most organisms are isolated in the microvascular tissue of the internal organs
and are therefore absent in peripheral blood. If malaria is suspected, blood smears should be
tested every 6 - 12 hours for at least two days. New diagnostic methods include rapid antigen
capture dipstick testing and techniques to detect parasites with fluorescent dyes. Both tests are
quick and easy to run. You are vulnerable and concrete. Other diagnostic methods include
malaria antibodies and antigens and polymerase chain reaction / DNA and RNA probe
techniques. These techniques are primarily used in epidemiological studies and immunization
trials and rarely diagnose individual patients. People who show signs of malaria should be tested
and treated immediately.
WHO strongly recommends testing for parasites by microscopic or rapid diagnostic testing
(RDT), depending on the available facilities. Parasite testing is essential for detecting and
treating malaria, as the combination of symptoms does not reliably distinguish malaria from
other causes. In some malaria-endemic areas, such as sub-Saharan Africa, the severity of the
disease can provide mild immunity to most local populations. As a result, some people carry
parasites in their blood, but they do not get sick.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF MALARIA (Plasmodium falciparum)
Malaria is an acute febrile illness. In non-immune people, symptoms usually appear 10 to 15
days after being bitten by an infectious mosquito. The first symptoms (fever, headache, chills)
endemic areas, receive blood transfusions, or receive intravenous medication should consider
malaria. 95% of people infected with malaria develop the underlying disease within six weeks of
exposure. However, some people have a direct attack within one year of exposure, while others
recurrence malaria within 23 years of exposure. There is a possibility. Therefore, people who
have recently contracted a febrile illness should be screened for malaria. A definitive malaria
diagnosis generally requires direct observation of malaria parasites on thick and thin blood
smears stained with Giemsa. Thick blood films are more difficult to interpret than thin blood
films, but they are much more sensitive because more blood is tested. A thin blood smear
showing parasites in red blood cells determines the parasite-infected. The existence of diagnosis
forms varies greatly depending on the life cycle stage, especially the onset of the disease. In P.
falciparum malaria, most organisms are isolated in the microvascular tissue of the internal organs
and are therefore absent in peripheral blood. If malaria is suspected, blood smears should be
tested every 6 - 12 hours for at least two days. New diagnostic methods include rapid antigen
capture dipstick testing and techniques to detect parasites with fluorescent dyes. Both tests are
quick and easy to run. You are vulnerable and concrete. Other diagnostic methods include
malaria antibodies and antigens and polymerase chain reaction / DNA and RNA probe
techniques. These techniques are primarily used in epidemiological studies and immunization
trials and rarely diagnose individual patients. People who show signs of malaria should be tested
and treated immediately.
WHO strongly recommends testing for parasites by microscopic or rapid diagnostic testing
(RDT), depending on the available facilities. Parasite testing is essential for detecting and
treating malaria, as the combination of symptoms does not reliably distinguish malaria from
other causes. In some malaria-endemic areas, such as sub-Saharan Africa, the severity of the
disease can provide mild immunity to most local populations. As a result, some people carry
parasites in their blood, but they do not get sick.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF MALARIA (Plasmodium falciparum)
Malaria is an acute febrile illness. In non-immune people, symptoms usually appear 10 to 15
days after being bitten by an infectious mosquito. The first symptoms (fever, headache, chills)
are mild and can be identified as malaria. If Plasmodium falciparum is not treated within 24
hours, it can lead to severe illness and often death.
Doctors divide P. falciparum (malaria) symptoms into two categories: Uncomplicated and severe
malaria.
Uncomplicated malaria
A typical (rare) explanation for a malaria attack is a 6-12 hour cold. It chills that alternate
between fever and headache, followed by sweating and malaise (sometimes divided into cold and
hot stages).
These symptoms are very non-specific. It is essential to assess whether a patient has a risk factor
for malaria (regular travel to endemic areas).
The most common symptoms are:
Fever and chills,
Headaches,
Nausea and vomiting, and
General weakness and body aches.
Complicated or severe malaria
A simplified list of risk signs such as fatigue, shortness of breath (acidic breathing), and impaired
consciousness is used for rapid clinical evaluation. Other clinical symptoms of severe malaria
include multiple convulsions, radiological confirmed pulmonary edema (respiratory failure due
to acute lung injury leading to acute respiratory distress syndrome), and abnormal bleeding
(disseminated intravascular coagulation), acute renal failure, seizures, shock, strange behavior, or
confusion and coma. Laboratory features of severe malaria may indicate severe anemia (due to
the destruction of red blood cells), hypoglycemia, acidosis, and hyperparasitemia.
Children with severe malaria often develop severe anemia, shortness of breath with metabolic
acidosis, or one or more symptoms of brain malaria. Multiple organ failure is also common in
adults. In malaria-endemic areas, people can develop partial immunity, which can lead to
asymptomatic infections.
hours, it can lead to severe illness and often death.
Doctors divide P. falciparum (malaria) symptoms into two categories: Uncomplicated and severe
malaria.
Uncomplicated malaria
A typical (rare) explanation for a malaria attack is a 6-12 hour cold. It chills that alternate
between fever and headache, followed by sweating and malaise (sometimes divided into cold and
hot stages).
These symptoms are very non-specific. It is essential to assess whether a patient has a risk factor
for malaria (regular travel to endemic areas).
The most common symptoms are:
Fever and chills,
Headaches,
Nausea and vomiting, and
General weakness and body aches.
Complicated or severe malaria
A simplified list of risk signs such as fatigue, shortness of breath (acidic breathing), and impaired
consciousness is used for rapid clinical evaluation. Other clinical symptoms of severe malaria
include multiple convulsions, radiological confirmed pulmonary edema (respiratory failure due
to acute lung injury leading to acute respiratory distress syndrome), and abnormal bleeding
(disseminated intravascular coagulation), acute renal failure, seizures, shock, strange behavior, or
confusion and coma. Laboratory features of severe malaria may indicate severe anemia (due to
the destruction of red blood cells), hypoglycemia, acidosis, and hyperparasitemia.
Children with severe malaria often develop severe anemia, shortness of breath with metabolic
acidosis, or one or more symptoms of brain malaria. Multiple organ failure is also common in
adults. In malaria-endemic areas, people can develop partial immunity, which can lead to
asymptomatic infections.
Secure Best Marks with AI Grader
Need help grading? Try our AI Grader for instant feedback on your assignments.
Other Manifestations of Plasmodium falciparum:
Neurological deficits can persist after cerebral malaria, especially in children. These deficiencies
include movement disorders (ataxia), cardiovascular collapse, paralysis, speech disorders,
deafness, and blindness. Recurrent infections with Plasmodium falciparum can lead to severe
anemia. This is most common in tropical African infants, who frequently develop inadequately
treated diseases.
Plasmodium falciparum infection during pregnancy can cause serious illness in the mother,
leading to preterm birth and low birth weight infants. is associated with complications such as
hypoglycemia (especially after treatment with quinine), maternal anemia, miscarriage, stillbirth,
and congenital malaria, pulmonary edema late in pregnancy than non-pregnant adults.
PREVENTION AND CONTROL MALARIA (Plasmodium
falciparum)
Prevention focuses on reducing the transmission of the disease by controlling the mosquitoes that
carry P. falciparum (malaria). WHO recommends to all people at risk of malaria protection
through effective malaria vector management. Two forms of vector control, insecticide-treated
nets (ITN) and Indoor residual spraying (IRS), are effective in many situations.
Insecticide-treated mosquito nets:
Sleeping under an insecticide treatment net (ITN) can reduce mosquito-human contact by
providing a physical barrier and insecticidal effect. Population-wide protection can result from
the killing of mosquitoes on a large scale where there is high access and usage of such nets
within a community.
There are no drugs that are 100% effective, so it is of utmost importance to avoid mosquito
bites. These precautions include:
Sleep under bed nets: These should cover the entire bed to the floor. These nets are
most effective when treated with pesticides.
Neurological deficits can persist after cerebral malaria, especially in children. These deficiencies
include movement disorders (ataxia), cardiovascular collapse, paralysis, speech disorders,
deafness, and blindness. Recurrent infections with Plasmodium falciparum can lead to severe
anemia. This is most common in tropical African infants, who frequently develop inadequately
treated diseases.
Plasmodium falciparum infection during pregnancy can cause serious illness in the mother,
leading to preterm birth and low birth weight infants. is associated with complications such as
hypoglycemia (especially after treatment with quinine), maternal anemia, miscarriage, stillbirth,
and congenital malaria, pulmonary edema late in pregnancy than non-pregnant adults.
PREVENTION AND CONTROL MALARIA (Plasmodium
falciparum)
Prevention focuses on reducing the transmission of the disease by controlling the mosquitoes that
carry P. falciparum (malaria). WHO recommends to all people at risk of malaria protection
through effective malaria vector management. Two forms of vector control, insecticide-treated
nets (ITN) and Indoor residual spraying (IRS), are effective in many situations.
Insecticide-treated mosquito nets:
Sleeping under an insecticide treatment net (ITN) can reduce mosquito-human contact by
providing a physical barrier and insecticidal effect. Population-wide protection can result from
the killing of mosquitoes on a large scale where there is high access and usage of such nets
within a community.
There are no drugs that are 100% effective, so it is of utmost importance to avoid mosquito
bites. These precautions include:
Sleep under bed nets: These should cover the entire bed to the floor. These nets are
most effective when treated with pesticides.
Clothing: Clothing that covers the most exposed skin and closed shoes can reduce the
risk of bites. Put all clothing and trousers in socks so that the area around your ankles is
not exposed. In addition, treating clothing with pesticides can further prevent bites.
Apply insect repellent to all exposed skin areas.
In 2019, an estimated 46% of people at risk of malaria in Africa were protected by pesticide-
treated nets, compared to 2% in 2000. However, ITN coverage has been inactive since 2016.
Indoor spraying with residual insecticides:
Indoor residual spraying (IRS) with insecticides is another effective way to reduce malaria
transmission quickly. The interior of a house is usually sprayed with insecticides once or twice a
year. To provide critical community protection, the IRS must be implemented with a high level
of coverage.
Globally, IRS protection fell from a high of 5% in 2010 to 2% in 2019, declining in all WHO
regions except the WHO Eastern Mediterranean. The coverage of the IRS decreases as the
country switches from pyrethroid pesticides to more expensive alternatives to reduce mosquito
resistance to pyrethroids.
There are no 100% effective interventions to prevent infections, but several different approaches
are available that can be used alone or in combination. Personal protective measures can reduce
the risk of exposure to infectious mosquitoes, and chemoprophylaxis can reduce the risk of
adverse consequences in the event of infection.
A commonly applied approach is malaria "ABCD."
A represents risk awareness,
B represents bite avoidance,
C represents chemoprophylaxis compliance, and
D represents fever diagnosis.
risk of bites. Put all clothing and trousers in socks so that the area around your ankles is
not exposed. In addition, treating clothing with pesticides can further prevent bites.
Apply insect repellent to all exposed skin areas.
In 2019, an estimated 46% of people at risk of malaria in Africa were protected by pesticide-
treated nets, compared to 2% in 2000. However, ITN coverage has been inactive since 2016.
Indoor spraying with residual insecticides:
Indoor residual spraying (IRS) with insecticides is another effective way to reduce malaria
transmission quickly. The interior of a house is usually sprayed with insecticides once or twice a
year. To provide critical community protection, the IRS must be implemented with a high level
of coverage.
Globally, IRS protection fell from a high of 5% in 2010 to 2% in 2019, declining in all WHO
regions except the WHO Eastern Mediterranean. The coverage of the IRS decreases as the
country switches from pyrethroid pesticides to more expensive alternatives to reduce mosquito
resistance to pyrethroids.
There are no 100% effective interventions to prevent infections, but several different approaches
are available that can be used alone or in combination. Personal protective measures can reduce
the risk of exposure to infectious mosquitoes, and chemoprophylaxis can reduce the risk of
adverse consequences in the event of infection.
A commonly applied approach is malaria "ABCD."
A represents risk awareness,
B represents bite avoidance,
C represents chemoprophylaxis compliance, and
D represents fever diagnosis.
It is essential to consider the traveler's health (especially pregnancy, age, and
immunosuppression) when assessing the risk of developing severe malaria and selecting the
appropriate antimalarial drug.
Barrier clothing, insecticide-impregnated mosquito bed nets, spraying effective mosquito
repellent (higher the active ingredient content, provides extended protection) are the critical
personal protective measures that need to be emphasized. Products containing 20% 40% DEET
(N, N-diethylmetatoramide), picaridin, lemon eucalyptus oil, PMD (Pmentan3,8diol), and
IR3535 are recommended.
Actions that minimize exposure to mosquitoes are also recommended. For example, choose a
shielded accommodation that stays indoors from dusk to dawn. Despite the emergence of
pesticide-resistant Anopheles mosquitoes, indoor residue spraying and long-lasting pesticide nets
continue to be the most effective means of controlling and eliminating malaria.
Insecticide resistance:
Mosquito control efforts have been strengthened in many areas. Still, there are critical
challenges, such as increasing mosquito resistance to effective insecticides such as DDT and
pyrethroids, especially in Africa.
Lack of effective alternative insecticides. Changes in mosquito behavior that carry P. falciparum
can result from vector control efforts (as insects move to more friendly areas). There is no
effective and efficient pesticide alternative to DDT or pyrethroids and the development of new
pesticides is a costly and long-term effort. The practice of vector management that enforces the
use of healthy pesticides is essential.
Detection of pesticide resistance should be a hallmark of repeated national management efforts
to implement the most effective vector control methods.
Vector control is the primary method for preventing and reducing P. falciparum (malaria)
infection. If the scope of vector control interventions in a particular area is high enough, the
entire community will be given a certain level of protection.
immunosuppression) when assessing the risk of developing severe malaria and selecting the
appropriate antimalarial drug.
Barrier clothing, insecticide-impregnated mosquito bed nets, spraying effective mosquito
repellent (higher the active ingredient content, provides extended protection) are the critical
personal protective measures that need to be emphasized. Products containing 20% 40% DEET
(N, N-diethylmetatoramide), picaridin, lemon eucalyptus oil, PMD (Pmentan3,8diol), and
IR3535 are recommended.
Actions that minimize exposure to mosquitoes are also recommended. For example, choose a
shielded accommodation that stays indoors from dusk to dawn. Despite the emergence of
pesticide-resistant Anopheles mosquitoes, indoor residue spraying and long-lasting pesticide nets
continue to be the most effective means of controlling and eliminating malaria.
Insecticide resistance:
Mosquito control efforts have been strengthened in many areas. Still, there are critical
challenges, such as increasing mosquito resistance to effective insecticides such as DDT and
pyrethroids, especially in Africa.
Lack of effective alternative insecticides. Changes in mosquito behavior that carry P. falciparum
can result from vector control efforts (as insects move to more friendly areas). There is no
effective and efficient pesticide alternative to DDT or pyrethroids and the development of new
pesticides is a costly and long-term effort. The practice of vector management that enforces the
use of healthy pesticides is essential.
Detection of pesticide resistance should be a hallmark of repeated national management efforts
to implement the most effective vector control methods.
Vector control is the primary method for preventing and reducing P. falciparum (malaria)
infection. If the scope of vector control interventions in a particular area is high enough, the
entire community will be given a certain level of protection.
Paraphrase This Document
Need a fresh take? Get an instant paraphrase of this document with our AI Paraphraser
Antimalarial drugs
Antimalarial can also be used to prevent malaria. For travelers, malaria can be prevented by
chemoprophylaxis. It suppresses the blood stage of P. falciparum (malaria) infection and
prevents malaria. For pregnant women living in areas with moderate to high infection rates,
WHO should provide intermittent prophylactic treatment with sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine at
least three times after each prenatal visit scheduled after the first trimester is recommended.
Similarly, three doses of regular prophylaxis, including sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine, are
recommended for infants living in highly infected areas of Africa who are vaccinated regularly.
Since 2012, WHO has recommended seasonal malaria chemoprevention as an additional malaria
prophylaxis strategy for regions in the Sahel region of Africa; this technique administers a
monthly course of amodiaquine and sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine to all children under five years
old during the high infection season.
TREATMENT OF MALARIA (P. falciparum)
Malaria treatment is complicated because parasites can be present in the blood and liver and
require different drugs to eradicate them. Drugs that kill malaria parasites in the blood are called
sizontiside in the blood stage, and drugs that kill them in the liver are called tissue sizonchiside.
Clinical treatment refers to the elimination of the parasites from the blood, thereby relieving the
signs and symptoms of the disease. The curative treatment is to eradicate all the parasites from
both the blood and liver bodies.
Treatment of malaria should be started as soon as possible. To treat malaria, your doctor will
prescribe medication to kill the malaria parasite. Some parasites are resistant to antimalarial
drugs. The type of drug and the duration of treatment depend on which parasite is causing the
symptoms.
Antimalarial drugs include:
Artemisinin drugs (artemether and artesunate).
Atovaquone (Mepron®).
Chloroquine.
Doxycycline (Doxy-100®, Monodox®, Oracea®).
Antimalarial can also be used to prevent malaria. For travelers, malaria can be prevented by
chemoprophylaxis. It suppresses the blood stage of P. falciparum (malaria) infection and
prevents malaria. For pregnant women living in areas with moderate to high infection rates,
WHO should provide intermittent prophylactic treatment with sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine at
least three times after each prenatal visit scheduled after the first trimester is recommended.
Similarly, three doses of regular prophylaxis, including sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine, are
recommended for infants living in highly infected areas of Africa who are vaccinated regularly.
Since 2012, WHO has recommended seasonal malaria chemoprevention as an additional malaria
prophylaxis strategy for regions in the Sahel region of Africa; this technique administers a
monthly course of amodiaquine and sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine to all children under five years
old during the high infection season.
TREATMENT OF MALARIA (P. falciparum)
Malaria treatment is complicated because parasites can be present in the blood and liver and
require different drugs to eradicate them. Drugs that kill malaria parasites in the blood are called
sizontiside in the blood stage, and drugs that kill them in the liver are called tissue sizonchiside.
Clinical treatment refers to the elimination of the parasites from the blood, thereby relieving the
signs and symptoms of the disease. The curative treatment is to eradicate all the parasites from
both the blood and liver bodies.
Treatment of malaria should be started as soon as possible. To treat malaria, your doctor will
prescribe medication to kill the malaria parasite. Some parasites are resistant to antimalarial
drugs. The type of drug and the duration of treatment depend on which parasite is causing the
symptoms.
Antimalarial drugs include:
Artemisinin drugs (artemether and artesunate).
Atovaquone (Mepron®).
Chloroquine.
Doxycycline (Doxy-100®, Monodox®, Oracea®).
Parenteral therapy is reserved for patients unable to take medications by mouth and for those
with complicated malaria.
Uncomplicated P. falciparum (malaria) should be treated with one of the artemisinin-based
combination therapies (ACT).
Artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) is highly effective because it affects a broader
range of parasite life cycles, resulting in faster parasite control. Therefore, it is considered the
drug of choice for uncomplicated malaria. The duration of ACT treatment is 3 days. In low-
infection areas, gamete cell-killing therapy (such as primaquine) is added to ACT to reduce the
likelihood of infection (except for pregnant women, infants younger than 6 months, and women
breastfeeding infants younger than 6 months).
Although not as effective as ACT, other treatment options are atovaquone-proguanil, quinine
sulphate plus doxycycline, tetracycline, or clindamycin-mefloquine. For chloroquine-sensitive
Plasmodium falciparum infections (including pregnant women), chloroquine is the drug of
choice. However, any of the above drug options can be used for chloroquine-resistant strains.
Treatment options are the same for the pediatric population, but the dose is adjusted based on the
patient's weight.
Chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum is widespread and currently exists in all malarious areas of
the world except Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean and parts of the Middle East. P.
falciparum resistant to multiple drugs is most prevalent in S.E. Asia but is also present in Africa
and Brazil.
Therapy of chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum is complicated and depends primarily on area of
disease acquisition. Patients with uncomplicated disease acquired in areas of chloroquine
resistance can be treated with one of several regimens effective against chloroquine-resistant
parasites. In the United States, two regimens are used primarily:
i. Mefloquine alone, or
ii. Quinine, plus doxycycline or pyrimethamine/sulfadoxine (Fansidar).
Other effective drugs include halofantrine, artemisinin (qinghaosu) derivatives, and clindamycin.
Halofantrine and artemisinin are used widely overseas but are not currently available in the U.S.
with complicated malaria.
Uncomplicated P. falciparum (malaria) should be treated with one of the artemisinin-based
combination therapies (ACT).
Artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) is highly effective because it affects a broader
range of parasite life cycles, resulting in faster parasite control. Therefore, it is considered the
drug of choice for uncomplicated malaria. The duration of ACT treatment is 3 days. In low-
infection areas, gamete cell-killing therapy (such as primaquine) is added to ACT to reduce the
likelihood of infection (except for pregnant women, infants younger than 6 months, and women
breastfeeding infants younger than 6 months).
Although not as effective as ACT, other treatment options are atovaquone-proguanil, quinine
sulphate plus doxycycline, tetracycline, or clindamycin-mefloquine. For chloroquine-sensitive
Plasmodium falciparum infections (including pregnant women), chloroquine is the drug of
choice. However, any of the above drug options can be used for chloroquine-resistant strains.
Treatment options are the same for the pediatric population, but the dose is adjusted based on the
patient's weight.
Chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum is widespread and currently exists in all malarious areas of
the world except Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean and parts of the Middle East. P.
falciparum resistant to multiple drugs is most prevalent in S.E. Asia but is also present in Africa
and Brazil.
Therapy of chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum is complicated and depends primarily on area of
disease acquisition. Patients with uncomplicated disease acquired in areas of chloroquine
resistance can be treated with one of several regimens effective against chloroquine-resistant
parasites. In the United States, two regimens are used primarily:
i. Mefloquine alone, or
ii. Quinine, plus doxycycline or pyrimethamine/sulfadoxine (Fansidar).
Other effective drugs include halofantrine, artemisinin (qinghaosu) derivatives, and clindamycin.
Halofantrine and artemisinin are used widely overseas but are not currently available in the U.S.
Severe or complicated malaria is a medical emergency. Effective, urgent, and appropriate
treatment has the greatest impact on prognosis. It is caused almost exclusively by P. falciparum.
Intravenous or intramuscular Artesunate is the first treatment of choice for all patients
worldwide, including children, lactating women, and pregnant women of all trimesters, until oral
medications are tolerated. Must be used for at least 24 hours. To ensure comparable efficacy,
children should be given higher doses of Artesunate (3 mg/kg body weight per dose). The dose
for older children and adults is 2.4 mg/kg body weight per dose. Artesunate should be given
intravenously three times immediately, followed by once every 12 and 24 hours.
If Artesunate is not available, Artemether will take precedence over Quinine. After complete
treatment with intravenous Artesunate for 24 hours, a regimen of follow-up drug treatment
should be completed. Comprehensive treatment with ACT for 3 days is recommended. Follow-
up medications for malaria should be different from the antimalarial medications used for
prevention for travelers. Intravenous Artesunate is currently not approved by the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) or is commercially available in the United States. It is available from the
CDC under the Advanced Access Audit Protocol (IND). It is pre-located at the US distribution
location and is available as soon as you contact the CDC. Because severe malaria can progress
rapidly, the CDC provides guidance on oral treatment that can be used while waiting for
Artesunate IV. They recommend intermediate treatment with oral artemether-lumefantrine
(preferably), atovaquone-proguanil, quinine sulphate, or mefloquine. If the patient cannot
tolerate oral medications, the administration should be considered after antiemetics or via the
nasogastric tube.
Patients with severe Plasmodium falciparum need to be hospitalized because they can get worse
even after starting effective treatment. When uncomplicated malaria is diagnosed in a patient, it
is confirmed that oral therapy can be tolerated and can be treated outpatient after the parasitemia
has subsided. Ideally, patients with severe malaria should be admitted to the intensive care unit
or intensive care unit and closely monitored for clinical status, vital signs, level of awareness,
and laboratory tests.
Supportive care such as glucose to maintain euglycemia and acetaminophen to control fever and
careful individual fluid management in patients with hypovolemia, acidosis, and acute renal
treatment has the greatest impact on prognosis. It is caused almost exclusively by P. falciparum.
Intravenous or intramuscular Artesunate is the first treatment of choice for all patients
worldwide, including children, lactating women, and pregnant women of all trimesters, until oral
medications are tolerated. Must be used for at least 24 hours. To ensure comparable efficacy,
children should be given higher doses of Artesunate (3 mg/kg body weight per dose). The dose
for older children and adults is 2.4 mg/kg body weight per dose. Artesunate should be given
intravenously three times immediately, followed by once every 12 and 24 hours.
If Artesunate is not available, Artemether will take precedence over Quinine. After complete
treatment with intravenous Artesunate for 24 hours, a regimen of follow-up drug treatment
should be completed. Comprehensive treatment with ACT for 3 days is recommended. Follow-
up medications for malaria should be different from the antimalarial medications used for
prevention for travelers. Intravenous Artesunate is currently not approved by the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) or is commercially available in the United States. It is available from the
CDC under the Advanced Access Audit Protocol (IND). It is pre-located at the US distribution
location and is available as soon as you contact the CDC. Because severe malaria can progress
rapidly, the CDC provides guidance on oral treatment that can be used while waiting for
Artesunate IV. They recommend intermediate treatment with oral artemether-lumefantrine
(preferably), atovaquone-proguanil, quinine sulphate, or mefloquine. If the patient cannot
tolerate oral medications, the administration should be considered after antiemetics or via the
nasogastric tube.
Patients with severe Plasmodium falciparum need to be hospitalized because they can get worse
even after starting effective treatment. When uncomplicated malaria is diagnosed in a patient, it
is confirmed that oral therapy can be tolerated and can be treated outpatient after the parasitemia
has subsided. Ideally, patients with severe malaria should be admitted to the intensive care unit
or intensive care unit and closely monitored for clinical status, vital signs, level of awareness,
and laboratory tests.
Supportive care such as glucose to maintain euglycemia and acetaminophen to control fever and
careful individual fluid management in patients with hypovolemia, acidosis, and acute renal
Secure Best Marks with AI Grader
Need help grading? Try our AI Grader for instant feedback on your assignments.
failure of varying degrees are essential. Blood transfusions may be indicated for severe anemia.
Benzodiazepines should be used to control seizures. However, prophylactic antiepileptic drugs
are not recommended, and empirical antibiotics should be used in children with severe malaria
and adults with concurrent shock.
Malaria during pregnancy presents a unique problem. Pregnant women are at higher risk of
developing severe and fatal malaria. Hyperparasitemia, hypoglycemia and pulmonary edema are
more common in pregnant women with P. falciparum infections. Pregnant women should be
treated promptly with appropriate doses of antimalarials. Quinine does not appear to induce labor
as was once thought. ACT is also recommended for pregnant women in the second and third
trimesters of pregnancy but should only be used in the first trimester if other treatment options
are not available. A combination of quinine and clindamycin should be prescribed during the
first semester. In low-infection areas, add gamete cell-killing therapy (such as primaquine) to
ACT to reduce the likelihood of infection (pregnant women, infants <6 months old, and younger
than 6 months old), Except for women who breastfeed their babies.
From the late 1950s to the early 1960s, it was thought that malaria could be eradicated by the
widespread use of insecticides such as DDT and the treatment of cases with chloroquine.
However, eradication is no longer considered impossible as drug resistance develops in
mosquitoes and P. falciparum parasites, and many malaria-endemic countries' social and
economic conditions are deteriorating. These changes have dramatically increased malaria
incidence in many parts of the world and increased malaria-related mortality in some regions.
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT OF PLASMODIUM
FALCIPARUM (MALARIA)
Patients with uncomplicated P. falciparum (malaria), especially those with timely diagnosis,
treatment, and proper compliance, usually recover from malaria without complications. Mortality
from uncomplicated malaria is only 0.1%. Mortality increases when patients develop signs and
symptoms of severe P. falciparum malaria. Adults have a higher mortality rate than children,
with more frequent polyphyletic involvement, with mortality rates of 18.5% and 9.7%,
respectively. The two main determinants that reflect both adult and child outcomes are the state
Benzodiazepines should be used to control seizures. However, prophylactic antiepileptic drugs
are not recommended, and empirical antibiotics should be used in children with severe malaria
and adults with concurrent shock.
Malaria during pregnancy presents a unique problem. Pregnant women are at higher risk of
developing severe and fatal malaria. Hyperparasitemia, hypoglycemia and pulmonary edema are
more common in pregnant women with P. falciparum infections. Pregnant women should be
treated promptly with appropriate doses of antimalarials. Quinine does not appear to induce labor
as was once thought. ACT is also recommended for pregnant women in the second and third
trimesters of pregnancy but should only be used in the first trimester if other treatment options
are not available. A combination of quinine and clindamycin should be prescribed during the
first semester. In low-infection areas, add gamete cell-killing therapy (such as primaquine) to
ACT to reduce the likelihood of infection (pregnant women, infants <6 months old, and younger
than 6 months old), Except for women who breastfeed their babies.
From the late 1950s to the early 1960s, it was thought that malaria could be eradicated by the
widespread use of insecticides such as DDT and the treatment of cases with chloroquine.
However, eradication is no longer considered impossible as drug resistance develops in
mosquitoes and P. falciparum parasites, and many malaria-endemic countries' social and
economic conditions are deteriorating. These changes have dramatically increased malaria
incidence in many parts of the world and increased malaria-related mortality in some regions.
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT OF PLASMODIUM
FALCIPARUM (MALARIA)
Patients with uncomplicated P. falciparum (malaria), especially those with timely diagnosis,
treatment, and proper compliance, usually recover from malaria without complications. Mortality
from uncomplicated malaria is only 0.1%. Mortality increases when patients develop signs and
symptoms of severe P. falciparum malaria. Adults have a higher mortality rate than children,
with more frequent polyphyletic involvement, with mortality rates of 18.5% and 9.7%,
respectively. The two main determinants that reflect both adult and child outcomes are the state
of consciousness, which is assessed in a coma, and the degree of metabolic acidosis, which is
evaluated clinically in respiratory patterns. More precisely, bicarbonate, base deficiency, and
plasma lactate. The typical mortality rate for treated severe malaria is 10-20%, while the
mortality rate for pregnant women reaches about 50%.
According to the latest Global Malaria Report published on November 30, 2020, the number of
malaria cases in 2019 was 229 million, compared to 228 million in 2018.
Aside from human sacrifice, malaria causes severe economic turmoil in high-infection areas,
reducing gross domestic product (GDP) by up to 1.3% in high-infection countries. In the long
run, these total annual losses have created a significant gap in GDP between countries with and
without malaria (especially Africa).
Malaria affects disproportionate poor people who cannot afford treatment or have limited access
to health care, leading families and communities into a downward spiral of poverty. Medical
expenses include both personal and public spending on prevention and treatment. In some
influential countries, the disease has the following causes:
Up to 40% of public health expenditure
30% to 50% of inpatients
Up to 60% of outpatient admissions.
The costs for individuals and their families are as follows:
Buying medicine to treat malaria at home.
Travel and treatment costs at pharmacies and clinics.
Absent from school.
Cost of preventive measures.
Funeral expenses in case of death.
Government costs include:
Medical facility maintenance, equipment, and staffing.
Purchase of medicines and consumables.
evaluated clinically in respiratory patterns. More precisely, bicarbonate, base deficiency, and
plasma lactate. The typical mortality rate for treated severe malaria is 10-20%, while the
mortality rate for pregnant women reaches about 50%.
According to the latest Global Malaria Report published on November 30, 2020, the number of
malaria cases in 2019 was 229 million, compared to 228 million in 2018.
Aside from human sacrifice, malaria causes severe economic turmoil in high-infection areas,
reducing gross domestic product (GDP) by up to 1.3% in high-infection countries. In the long
run, these total annual losses have created a significant gap in GDP between countries with and
without malaria (especially Africa).
Malaria affects disproportionate poor people who cannot afford treatment or have limited access
to health care, leading families and communities into a downward spiral of poverty. Medical
expenses include both personal and public spending on prevention and treatment. In some
influential countries, the disease has the following causes:
Up to 40% of public health expenditure
30% to 50% of inpatients
Up to 60% of outpatient admissions.
The costs for individuals and their families are as follows:
Buying medicine to treat malaria at home.
Travel and treatment costs at pharmacies and clinics.
Absent from school.
Cost of preventive measures.
Funeral expenses in case of death.
Government costs include:
Medical facility maintenance, equipment, and staffing.
Purchase of medicines and consumables.
Public health measures against malaria, such as spraying insecticides and distributing
insecticides -treated mosquito nets.
Lost working days, resulting in loss of income.
Lost consortium and tourism opportunities.
Direct costs (e.g., illness, treatment, premature death) are estimated to be at least $ 12 billion
annually. The cost of lost economic growth is many times higher.
ELIMINATION OF MALARIA (PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM)
The goal of most current national malaria control programs and most malaria activities is to
reduce the number of malaria cases and deaths. The purpose of malaria "management" is to
reduce malaria infection to the extent that it is no longer a public health problem. The "fight"
against malaria is different from the "eradication" and "eradication" of malaria. "Removal" has a
local or regional range. Extermination is a "global exclusion." Eradication will not be achieved
until malaria is removed from nature. These terms can be defined differently for each illness.
Malaria was a heavy burden in Africa, which was challenging to manage. There are many
reasons for this: efficient mosquitoes that transmit the infection, high prevalence of the most
deadly parasites, favorable climates, weak infrastructure to combat disease, and high intervention
costs are burdening in developing countries.
However, the expansion of effective, safe, and proven preventive and control measures made
possible by global support and state involvement is dramatically reduced by sharing the impact
of malaria on the population of malaria-endemic countries. It shows that you can.
Recent data show that the widespread use of WHO-recommended strategies can rapidly reduce
malaria, especially in high-incidence areas such as Africa. WHO and its member states have
made great strides in their efforts to eradicate malaria. For example, the Maldives and Sri Lanka
have recently been certified to eliminate malaria. Country success can be traced back to intensive
national efforts and collaborative efforts with partners.
insecticides -treated mosquito nets.
Lost working days, resulting in loss of income.
Lost consortium and tourism opportunities.
Direct costs (e.g., illness, treatment, premature death) are estimated to be at least $ 12 billion
annually. The cost of lost economic growth is many times higher.
ELIMINATION OF MALARIA (PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM)
The goal of most current national malaria control programs and most malaria activities is to
reduce the number of malaria cases and deaths. The purpose of malaria "management" is to
reduce malaria infection to the extent that it is no longer a public health problem. The "fight"
against malaria is different from the "eradication" and "eradication" of malaria. "Removal" has a
local or regional range. Extermination is a "global exclusion." Eradication will not be achieved
until malaria is removed from nature. These terms can be defined differently for each illness.
Malaria was a heavy burden in Africa, which was challenging to manage. There are many
reasons for this: efficient mosquitoes that transmit the infection, high prevalence of the most
deadly parasites, favorable climates, weak infrastructure to combat disease, and high intervention
costs are burdening in developing countries.
However, the expansion of effective, safe, and proven preventive and control measures made
possible by global support and state involvement is dramatically reduced by sharing the impact
of malaria on the population of malaria-endemic countries. It shows that you can.
Recent data show that the widespread use of WHO-recommended strategies can rapidly reduce
malaria, especially in high-incidence areas such as Africa. WHO and its member states have
made great strides in their efforts to eradicate malaria. For example, the Maldives and Sri Lanka
have recently been certified to eliminate malaria. Country success can be traced back to intensive
national efforts and collaborative efforts with partners.
Paraphrase This Document
Need a fresh take? Get an instant paraphrase of this document with our AI Paraphraser
The recent increase in resources, political will, and involvement has sparked a debate about the
potential for eradicating malaria.
VACCINES FOR PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM (MALARIA)
Malaria vaccines will be the ideal means of controlling, preventing, eradicating, and ultimately
eradicating the disease. The complexity of Plasmodium falciparum infection has hampered
several attempts to develop effective vaccines. However, the acquisition of partial immunity and
the successful treatment of malaria with purified immunoglobulins from semi-immune adults
have shown that vaccine development is possible.
Researchers have identified several potential points of attack in the parasite infection cycle.
Currently, there are 20 vaccine candidates in clinical trials. The most promising and advanced
vaccine ever developed is the licensed RTS-S subsystem vaccine (RTS, S / ASO1), which targets
the pre-erythrocyte stage of infection and is hepatocellular infection and parasitic. It prevents the
outbreak of insects and thus limits the invasion of red blood cells. It is composed of a
recombinant protein of Plasmodium falciparum-derived sporozoite preprotein (CSP) binds to the
hepatitis B surface antigen. RTS, S / ASO1, the first regulatory-approved malaria vaccine for
human use, has launched Africa's first regular malaria vaccination program.
Pilot research began in Malawi in April 2019 and expanded to Kenya and Ghana. The pilot study
lasts about 50 months and enrolls 720,000 children in the vaccinated and control groups.
However, some safety concerns currently being investigated in the pilot study have already been
identified in the Phase III study. There is an increased risk of meningitis, brain malaria, and
double mortality in women. Assume that no significant safety concerns have been identified in
the first 24 months of the study. In this case, the pilot study goes through the entire process
before deciding on a broader application in endemic countries.
Malaria vaccines have been in development since the 1960s and have made great strides in the
last decade. October 6, 2021, is the historic day of malaria vaccine development and the World
Health Organization recommendations for the widespread use of the malaria vaccine- RTS, S /
AS01 (RTS, S) in children living in sub-Saharan Africa and other areas with moderate to high P.
falciparum malaria transmission have been announced.
potential for eradicating malaria.
VACCINES FOR PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM (MALARIA)
Malaria vaccines will be the ideal means of controlling, preventing, eradicating, and ultimately
eradicating the disease. The complexity of Plasmodium falciparum infection has hampered
several attempts to develop effective vaccines. However, the acquisition of partial immunity and
the successful treatment of malaria with purified immunoglobulins from semi-immune adults
have shown that vaccine development is possible.
Researchers have identified several potential points of attack in the parasite infection cycle.
Currently, there are 20 vaccine candidates in clinical trials. The most promising and advanced
vaccine ever developed is the licensed RTS-S subsystem vaccine (RTS, S / ASO1), which targets
the pre-erythrocyte stage of infection and is hepatocellular infection and parasitic. It prevents the
outbreak of insects and thus limits the invasion of red blood cells. It is composed of a
recombinant protein of Plasmodium falciparum-derived sporozoite preprotein (CSP) binds to the
hepatitis B surface antigen. RTS, S / ASO1, the first regulatory-approved malaria vaccine for
human use, has launched Africa's first regular malaria vaccination program.
Pilot research began in Malawi in April 2019 and expanded to Kenya and Ghana. The pilot study
lasts about 50 months and enrolls 720,000 children in the vaccinated and control groups.
However, some safety concerns currently being investigated in the pilot study have already been
identified in the Phase III study. There is an increased risk of meningitis, brain malaria, and
double mortality in women. Assume that no significant safety concerns have been identified in
the first 24 months of the study. In this case, the pilot study goes through the entire process
before deciding on a broader application in endemic countries.
Malaria vaccines have been in development since the 1960s and have made great strides in the
last decade. October 6, 2021, is the historic day of malaria vaccine development and the World
Health Organization recommendations for the widespread use of the malaria vaccine- RTS, S /
AS01 (RTS, S) in children living in sub-Saharan Africa and other areas with moderate to high P.
falciparum malaria transmission have been announced.
The world's leading global health organizations has developed a malaria vaccine technology
roadmap to accelerate the development of highly potent malaria vaccines. The roadmap includes
the following strategic goals for malaria vaccines by 2030:
Development and approval of a malaria vaccine with at least 75% preventive effect against
clinical malaria in persistent malaria-infected areas.
Develop a malaria vaccine that reduces transmission and human malaria infections and
enables eradication in multiple situations through mass vaccination campaigns.
REFERENCES:
CDC - Malaria - Diagnosis & Treatment (United States) - Treatment (U.S.) - Guidelines for
Clinicians. (2020). https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/diagnosis_treatment/clinicians1.html
Arévalo-Herrera, M., Lopez-Perez, M., Medina, L., Moreno, A., Gutierrez, J. B., & Herrera,
S. (2015). Clinical profile of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax infections in
low and unstable malaria transmission settings of Colombia. Malaria Journal, 14(1).
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-015-0678-3
K. Nilsson, Sandra; M. Childs, Lauren; Buckee, Caroline; Marti, Matthias (2015): Life cycle
of Plasmodium falciparum.. PLOS Pathogens. Figure.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1004871.g001
Khodzhaeva, N. M., Baranova, A. M., & Tokmalaev, A. K. (2019). The Immunological
Plasmodium falciparum Malaria Characteristics of Children in Tajikistan Republic. Journal
of Tropical Medicine, 2019, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/5147252
Malaria: Symptoms, Treatment, Causes, Prevention and Signs. (n.d.). Cleveland Clinic.
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15014-malaria
Venugopal, K., Hentzschel, F., Valkiūnas, G., & Marti, M. (2020). Plasmodium asexual
growth and sexual development in the haematopoietic niche of the host. Nature Reviews
Microbiology, 18(3), 177–189. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-019-0306-2
Crutcher, J. M., & Hoffman, S. L. (2019). Malaria. Nih.gov; University of Texas Medical
Branch at Galveston. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8584/
roadmap to accelerate the development of highly potent malaria vaccines. The roadmap includes
the following strategic goals for malaria vaccines by 2030:
Development and approval of a malaria vaccine with at least 75% preventive effect against
clinical malaria in persistent malaria-infected areas.
Develop a malaria vaccine that reduces transmission and human malaria infections and
enables eradication in multiple situations through mass vaccination campaigns.
REFERENCES:
CDC - Malaria - Diagnosis & Treatment (United States) - Treatment (U.S.) - Guidelines for
Clinicians. (2020). https://www.cdc.gov/malaria/diagnosis_treatment/clinicians1.html
Arévalo-Herrera, M., Lopez-Perez, M., Medina, L., Moreno, A., Gutierrez, J. B., & Herrera,
S. (2015). Clinical profile of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax infections in
low and unstable malaria transmission settings of Colombia. Malaria Journal, 14(1).
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-015-0678-3
K. Nilsson, Sandra; M. Childs, Lauren; Buckee, Caroline; Marti, Matthias (2015): Life cycle
of Plasmodium falciparum.. PLOS Pathogens. Figure.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1004871.g001
Khodzhaeva, N. M., Baranova, A. M., & Tokmalaev, A. K. (2019). The Immunological
Plasmodium falciparum Malaria Characteristics of Children in Tajikistan Republic. Journal
of Tropical Medicine, 2019, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/5147252
Malaria: Symptoms, Treatment, Causes, Prevention and Signs. (n.d.). Cleveland Clinic.
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/15014-malaria
Venugopal, K., Hentzschel, F., Valkiūnas, G., & Marti, M. (2020). Plasmodium asexual
growth and sexual development in the haematopoietic niche of the host. Nature Reviews
Microbiology, 18(3), 177–189. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-019-0306-2
Crutcher, J. M., & Hoffman, S. L. (2019). Malaria. Nih.gov; University of Texas Medical
Branch at Galveston. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8584/
TREATMENT OF UNCOMPLICATED PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM MALARIA.
(2015). Nih.gov; World Health Organization.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK294441/
Zekar, L., & Sharman, T. (2020). Malaria (Plasmodium Falciparum). PubMed; StatPearls
Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555962/
CDC. (2019). CDC - Parasites - Malaria. CDC.
https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/malaria/index.html
Sanchez, J. D., & https://www.facebook.com/pahowho. (n.d.). PAHO/WHO | Malaria:
General information. Pan American Health Organization / World Health Organization.
https://www3.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2573:2010-
general-information-malaria&Itemid=2060&lang=en
R, J. (2018). Malaria Causes, Types, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention. MedicineNet.
https://www.medicinenet.com/malaria_facts/article.htm
Plasmodium. (n.d.). Parasite.org.au.
http://parasite.org.au/parasite/text/plasmodium-text.html
(2015). Nih.gov; World Health Organization.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK294441/
Zekar, L., & Sharman, T. (2020). Malaria (Plasmodium Falciparum). PubMed; StatPearls
Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK555962/
CDC. (2019). CDC - Parasites - Malaria. CDC.
https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/malaria/index.html
Sanchez, J. D., & https://www.facebook.com/pahowho. (n.d.). PAHO/WHO | Malaria:
General information. Pan American Health Organization / World Health Organization.
https://www3.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2573:2010-
general-information-malaria&Itemid=2060&lang=en
R, J. (2018). Malaria Causes, Types, Symptoms, Treatment & Prevention. MedicineNet.
https://www.medicinenet.com/malaria_facts/article.htm
Plasmodium. (n.d.). Parasite.org.au.
http://parasite.org.au/parasite/text/plasmodium-text.html
Secure Best Marks with AI Grader
Need help grading? Try our AI Grader for instant feedback on your assignments.
1 out of 23
Related Documents
Your All-in-One AI-Powered Toolkit for Academic Success.
+13062052269
info@desklib.com
Available 24*7 on WhatsApp / Email
![[object Object]](/_next/static/media/star-bottom.7253800d.svg)
Unlock your academic potential
© 2024 | Zucol Services PVT LTD | All rights reserved.