ETC/WMGE 2021 Report: Plastic in Textiles - Circularity and Impacts

This Eionet report, ETC/WMGE 2021/1, delves into the multifaceted issue of plastic in textiles, examining its production, consumption, and the resulting environmental consequences. The report provides an in-depth analysis of synthetic fibers, their prevalence in clothing, household items, and industrial applications, and the associated environmental impacts, including resource use, greenhouse gas emissions, chemical usage, and microplastic pollution. It explores the challenges within the textile value chain, from production to waste generation, emphasizing the need for a circular economy approach. The report highlights strategies for sustainable fiber choices, microplastic emission control, and improved collection, reuse, and recycling of textile waste. Furthermore, it provides insights into the European Union's strategies for plastics and textiles, including the European Green Deal and the Circular Economy Action Plan, offering valuable lessons for policy implementation to reduce environmental and climate impacts. The report underscores the importance of addressing the textile industry's significant contribution to plastic waste and its potential to establish new job-intensive activities within the EU while minimizing environmental impacts.

Eionet Report - ETC/WMGE 2021/1
28/01/2021
Plastic in textiles: potentials for circularity and
reduced environmental and climate impacts

Cover design: ETC/WMGE
Cover photo © iStockphoto, credits: Tarzhanova, reference: 1148765172
Layout: ETC/WMGE
Legal notice
The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the official opinions of the European Commission or other institutions
of the European Union. Neither the European Environment Agency, the European Topic Centre on Waste and Materials in a Green
Economy nor any person or company acting on behalf of the Agency or the Topic Centre is responsible for the use that may be
made of the information contained in this report.
Copyright notice
© European Topic Centre Waste and Materials in a Green Economy (2021)
Reproduction is authorized provided the source is acknowledged.
More information on the European Union is available on the Internet (http://europa.eu).

Contents
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................................... 1
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 2
2 Consumption and production of synthetic textiles in Europe .............................................................. 5
2.1. Consumption of synthetic textiles and fibres in the EU ................................................................ 5
2.2. Production of synthetic textiles..................................................................................................... 7
2.3. Synthetic textile waste ................................................................................................................ 16
3 Environmental and climate impacts of synthetic fibres and textiles .................................................. 19
3.1. Impacts across the value chain .................................................................................................... 19
3.2. Resource use ............................................................................................................................... 22
3.3. Greenhouse gas emissions .......................................................................................................... 24
3.4. Chemicals and health .................................................................................................................. 25
3.5. Microplastics ............................................................................................................................... 25
4 Towards a circular economy for synthetic fibres and textiles, and the potential to reduce
environmental and climate impacts ............................................................................................................ 28
4.1. Sustainable fibre choices ............................................................................................................. 31
4.2. Microplastic emission control ..................................................................................................... 35
4.3. Improved collection, reuse and recycling.................................................................................... 37
5 Lessons for the European plastics and textiles strategies ................................................................... 41
6 References ........................................................................................................................................... 43

Acknowledgements
The report has been produced within the task on ‘Plastics in textiles: potentials for circularity and reduced
environmental and climate impacts’ of the 2020 ETC/WMGE work program. Lars Mortensen (EEA) has
been the project leader and Saskia Manshoven (ETC/WMGE) has been the task leader.
The authors are grateful to the following experts and organisations for their comments that substantially
improved the quality of the report: Marco Manfroni (DG GROW), Laura Balmond (The Ellen MacArthur
Foundation), David Watson (PlanMiljø), Mauro Scalia (Euratex), Stijn Devaere (Centexbel) and Tom Duhoux
(VITO). Bart Ullstein (BEC) provided a very careful editing of the report. Nora Brüggemann (CSCP) and her
team provided graphic design support.

1 Introduction
It is hard to imagine a world without plastics, yet the large-scale production and use of plastics only started
in the 1950’s. But despite the fact that they are fairly new raw materials, their versatile and unique
properties and multitude of applications, including in textiles, have led to the production of more than 8
billion tonnes of plastics worldwide over the past 70 years (Geyer et al., 2017).
Over the last 20 years, there has been a great increase in the use of synthetic, plastic-based fibres in textile
production, and expectations are that both shares and absolute volumes will increase further (Textile
Exchange, 2019). Today these synthetic textiles are part of everyday life; they literally surround us. in the
clothes we wear and the bed sheets we sleep in; we use them to decorate our homes as furniture and
cushion covers, as curtains and carpets. And often they are present without us knowing, less visible as
reinforcements in car tyres and sports gear. The 2019 EEA Briefing and European Topic Centre (ETC) report
Textiles and the environment in a circular economy found that globally about 60 % of textiles are made of
fibers based on synthetic polymers (EEA, 2019; ETC/WMGE, 2019b). While the majority of these is
produced and processed in Asia, Europe stands out as the world’s largest importer of synthetic fibre by
trade value (Birkbeck, 2020).
Textiles play an important role in European manufacturing industry, employing 1.7 million people and
generating a turnover of EUR 178 billion in 2018 (Euratex, 2019). After China, Europe is the second largest
exporter of textiles and clothing in the world (Euratex, 2019). Alongside the design and production of high‐
quality clothing, Europe is a leading producer of synthetic fibers, technical and industrial textiles and non-
woven textiles, such as industrial filters, medical products and textiles for the automotive sector
(ETC/WMGE, 2019b).
Textiles are a policy priority for the European Commission (EC). The shift to a circular economy is regarded
as an opportunity to establish new job-intensive activities and bring more manufacturing back to the
European Union (EU) in some sectors, while minimising environmental and climate impacts. As part of the
European Green Deal, the new Circular Economy Action Plan mentions textiles and plastics as two of the
key product value chains that will be addressed as a matter of priority (European Commission, 2020a).
Indeed, the textiles’ system is characterised by significant greenhouse gas emissions and a high use of
resources: water, land and a variety of chemicals (EEA, 2019; ETC/WMGE, 2019b). Moreover, it is
estimated that in 2015, 42 million tonnes of plastic textile waste was generated globally, making the
textiles sector the third largest contributor to plastic waste generation (Geyer et al., 2017). Unfortunately,
since only about one third of post-consumer textile waste is collected separately for reuse or recycling
(Watson et al., 2018), the majority of the textile waste ends up in the residual waste and is incinerated,
landfilled, or enters the environment as litter. A specific concern is that synthetic textiles do not naturally
degrade, but stay in the biosphere as waste unless they are incinerated.
While recycling rates for non-fibre plastics have steadily increased since the 1980s – PlasticsEurope

by filters; improved and harmonised measuring methods; and building the knowledge base related to the
risk and occurrence of microplastics in the environment, drinking water and food (European Commission,
2020a).
The scope of this report is textiles made of synthetic fibres (Figure 1). These textiles are widely used for
clothing, household textiles and in industrial applications. Their popularity is due to such properties as
strength, elasticity, resistance to shrinking or quick drying. Polyester and nylon are the most common
fibres, although many others are used as well. Synthetic fibres are produced using organic (carbon-based)
polymers, which are made from fossil fuels. These fibres are spun into pure or blended yarns and woven
into fabrics that receive final finishing to yield textiles with specific aesthetics and properties.
Apart from synthetic fibres, a broad variety of other types of fibre is used in textiles. Other man-made ones
are made from natural polymers such as viscose from wood cellulose and polylactic acid (PLA) from corn
sugar, or from inorganic (non-carbon) materials such as glass and metal. Natural fibres include plant-based
ones such as cotton and hemp; protein fibres of animal origin including wool and silk, and mineral fibres
such as asbestos (Figure 1). These fibres are not part of the scope of this report, although they are briefly
mentioned if relevant.
Figure 1 Scope of this report

Chapter 3 provides insights into the environmental and climate impacts of synthetic textiles, focusing on
resource and water use, greenhouse gas emissions, the use of chemicals and the release of microplastics.
Chapter 4 investigates how synthetic textiles could be made and managed more sustainably, focusing on
design choices, circular economy strategies and the mitigation of microplastic pollution.
Finally, Chapter 5 reflects on the report’s findings and their potential implementation in EU action plans
and strategies on plastics and textiles in a circular economy.

2 Consumption and production of synthetic textiles in Europe
2.1. Consumption of synthetic textiles and fibres in the EU
Synthetic fibres are everywhere in everyday life and are important to our lifestyles. They are in the clothes
we wear and the towels we use; they are the stuffing and covers of our sofas, cushions and beds and in
the curtains and carpets of our homes. They are in the safety belts of our cars and in protective workwear.
They are used as reinforcement materials in plastic sports equipment, such as skis and surfboards, and in
vehicle tyres. Many of the products we use every day for comfort, leisure and protection are made from
or contain synthetic fibres. Per person textile consumption estimates come with a lot of uncertainty, as
various studies provide different estimates ranging from 9 to 27 kilograms per person, depending on the
country, data source and product scope (ETC/WMGE, 2019b; Šajn, 2019; Watson et al., 2018; JRC, 2014).
In 2017, the total consumption of textile products by EU households was estimated at 13 million tonnes
(Stadler et al., 2018).
Around 71 % of synthetic textile fibres are processed into clothing and household textiles, and the
remainder used for technical textiles such as safety wear and in industrial applications including in vehicles
and machinery (Ryberg et al., 2017). Synthetic fibres are inexpensive and versatile, allowing the production
of cheap fast fashion as well as high-performance textiles for durable clothing. Today, it is estimated that
about 60 % of fibres used in clothing are synthetic, of which polyester is predominant (FAO/ICAC, 2013).
In household textiles, synthetics make up around 70 % of household textiles – mainly polyester, 28 %, and
nylon, 23 % (Beton et al., 2014). Acrylic, nylon and polypropylene are important fibres in carpet
manufacture.
In Europe, technical textiles account for an increasing share of the production of synthetic fibres (Adinolfi,
2019) and currently make up 25–28 % of EU textiles and clothing turnover. Technical textiles are also, to a
large extent, made of synthetic fibres. Technical textiles are used in a variety of products mainly used in
industry, such as conveyor belts in machinery, filters in air conditioning and medical applications,
construction materials, tyre cord reinforcements for vehicles and industrial safety fabrics used in
protective workwear including fire-, heat- or chemical-resistant clothing . Synthetic fibres and fabrics are
also used as reinforcements in light-weight composite materials. Such composites are used to replace
metals, allowing weight savings in, for example, aircraft and cars (Scheffer, 2012), or as reinforcements in
sporting goods such as snowboards or hockey sticks. Technical textiles are engineered to meet thespecific
requirements of each end use, such as durability, chemical resistance or strength.
Polyester (PET) is the most commonly used synthetic fibre across the world. It has a multitude of uses
because of its low price and fabrics made of it are strong, durable, resistant to shrinking, stretching and
creasing. Clothing accounts for a large share of the usage of polyester fibres, but it is also used in home

than other fibres. Acrylic fibres are soft, flexible, thick and fluffy, and some types have flame-retardant
properties. They are widely used in blankets, home furnishings and in knitted clothing, such as artificial
wool for sweaters. Elastane (spandex) fibres are elastic and often used in garments where comfort and/or
fit are important. Typical examples are sports and leisure wear, elastic corset fabrics and stockings. Aramid
fibres, such as kevlar, are very strong, five times stronger than steel, which makes them very suitable as
reinforcements in sports gear including snowboards, and bullet-proof vests. They are also used to replace
asbestos in automotive parts such as brake and clutch linings. Some aramids have excellent heat resistance
and are used in protective clothing, hot gas filtration and as electrical insulation. Aramid fibres are also
used in car tyres as they reduce rolling resistance (CIRFS, 2020a). Chlorofibres are a group of fibres made
from polyvinyl chloride (PVC). They are soft, comfortable, quick-drying, waterproof and insulating, and are
used in a variety of applications depending on the specific fibre type, such as hosiery and underwear
(Fibre2fashion, 2020a). Melamine fibres are flame and heat resistant and used in mattresses and
firefighting apparel (Maity and Singha, 2012).
In many cases, different fibres types are combined in blends with other synthetic or natural fibres to
reduce costs or to build fabrics that combine properties that cannot be achieved with a single fibre.
Polycotton is the most common blend used in clothing.
The global consumption of synthetic fibres increased from a few thousand tonnes in 1940 to more than
60 million tonnes in 2018, and continues to rise. Since the late 90’s polyester has surpassed cotton as the
most used fibre (Figure 2).
Figure 2 Global fibre demand, 1940–2018, million tonnes per year

2.2. Production of synthetic textiles
The value chain of synthetic textiles is shown in Figure 3. Synthetic fibres are produced from fossil
resources, such as oil and natural gas. At a global level, synthetic fibres consume 48 million tonnes of crude
oil per year, around 1 % of total production (EIA, 2020; Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017). Production
and use of bio-based synthetic fibres are very limited in general, although the use of some fibre types in
textiles amounts to several thousand tonnes per year, for example polylactic acid (PLA) and
polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT) (Section 4.1 and Figure 20) (European Bioplastics, 2020).
From this feedstock, different synthetic polymers are produced, such as polyester or nylon, that can be
processed further into fibres. To produce textile fibres, some manufacturers start from polymer chips,
while others produce the polymer themselves and turn it directly into fibres without producing chips
(CIRFS, 2020a).
To produce textile fibres, the polymer is melted and then the melt is extruded into long, continuous
filaments. Depending on the intended use, these filaments can be used as such (continuous filament
fibres), or they can be cut into shorter fibres a few centimetres long (staple fibres). In order to produce
fabrics, fibres need to be processed or spun into yarn. Continuous filaments yarns are generally thin and
smooth. As the fibres are longer, the resulting yarns are very strong. Nylon is often used in the form of
continuous filament yarn, for example, in fishing nets, swim wear or sewing thread. Because they are short,
staple fibres require spinning to produce yarn, but they have the advantage that they can be blended with
other fibre types, both natural and synthetic, into a variety of yarn compositions and formations. Staple
fibres are widely used in clothing textiles.
Yarns can then be woven into fabrics or knitted directly into final products. Also, staple fibres in their
fibrous form can be incorporated directly in fillings or compressed into non-woven or felted fabrics (CIRFS,
2020a). Across the textile production process many chemicals are added to provide the textiles with
colours, prints and additional properties.
About one third of post-consumer textiles is collected separately, the remainder end up in residual waste.
Of all collected textiles, up to 50–75 % is reused, in Europe or mostly abroad (Watson et al., 2020; 2018).
Most non-reusable textiles are incinerated or landfilled; recycling of textiles is minimal and mainly focused
on cotton-rich products. The recycling of synthetic textiles is still in its infancy, at the level of research and
pilot scale production. Recycling routes can be split into mechanical recycling processes, based on melting
and respinning synthetic polymers, and chemical recycling processes, based on the solution or chemical
breakdown of the polymers, followed by repolymerisation (Figure 3).

Figure 3 The value chain of synthetic textiles

The following sections focus on the global and European production and trade volumes of the most
common synthetic fibres used in textiles and the chemicals used in their production.
Production and trade of synthetic fibres
The world of plastics encompasses more than 30 different polymer types, with a broad range of properties,
for a multitude of applications. In 2018, global plastics production reached about 425 million tonnes, of
which almost 68 million tonnes were synthetic textile fibres, making textiles account for about 16 % of
plastic consumption worldwide (CIRFS, 2020b; PlasticsEurope, 2018).
The global production of natural and synthetic textile fibres totalled about 107 million tonnes in 2018, of
which synthetic fibres made up almost two thirds (Figure 4) (Textile Exchange, 2019). Over the last 20
years, the production of synthetic textile fibres has more than doubled (Figure 5) and is expected to
continue to rise (Textile Exchange, 2019).
Figure 4 Global fibre production, 2018, million tonnes/per cent
Source: Textile Exchange (2019)