Soils of Potohar Plateau, Their Problems and Management- A Review

This report provides a comprehensive review of the soils of the Potohar Plateau in Pakistan, focusing on their physicochemical properties, agricultural potential, and the challenges they face. The region's soils are diverse, influenced by parent material and arid climatic conditions, and are predominantly sandy loam to loam in texture with slightly to moderately alkaline pH levels. The report highlights deficiencies in Soil Organic Matter and essential nutrients like Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Zinc, Iron, and Boron, leading to issues such as soil erosion, moisture stress, and reduced crop productivity. It explores the agricultural practices, including the cultivation of wheat, maize, and groundnut, and discusses the importance of effective management techniques to mitigate soil degradation and enhance agricultural yields. The study also examines the soil types, nutrient availability, and the impact of these factors on crop production, offering insights into sustainable land management practices for the Potohar Plateau.

5/12/2019
Soils of Potohar Plateau, their problems and management- A review
Group Members:
Mehak Ishtiaq
Aiman Haleem
Arooj Fatima
Amber Asif
Submitted To:
Dr. Shaheen Begum

Soils of Potohar Plateau, their problems and management- A review
Mehak Ishtiaq, Aiman Haleem, Arooj Fatima, Amber Asif
Abstract
Potohar plateau is one of the highlighted area of Pakistan with distinct soil chemistry and
discrete rainfed agricultural productivity covering four districts (Rawalpindi, Jhelum
Chakwal, Attock) of Punjab province. The soils of the region are diverse in term of
physicochemical properties, agricultural potential and soil chemistry. The practical factors
affecting the soil nature are parent material and arid climatic condition. The soils are
categorized as slightly to moderately alkaline in term of pH and sandy loam to loam in term
of texture. The common agricultural crops include wheat, maize, groundnut, barley and
millet. Naturally soil are deficient in context of Soil Organic Matter and other growth
supporting nutrients particularly Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Zinc, Iron and Boron. The
prominent constrains faced by the area includes soil erosion, moisture stress, shallow tillage,
nutrition depletion and soil compaction which results in decreased productivity in term of
crops. The solution can be sorted by adaption of effective management techniques.
1. Introduction
Pakistani soil is a complex of myriad soil types based on variation in context of their parent
material, soil forming processes and climatic conditions with resulting discrepancies in the
soil’s physicochemical properties. Soil from different part of the country is categorized
differently based on distinct features in term of soil texture, structure, nutrient availability and
annual agricultural production capacity. Because of semiarid to arid climatic conditions in
the country, major portion of soil falls under the category of dryland. Among this class of
dryland soils in the country, Potohar Plateau is one of the highlighted area with distinct soil
chemistry and discrete rainfed agricultural productivity.
1.1. Geography
Potohar Plateau being located in the north eastern part of the country mainly constitute four
district of the Punjab province including Chakwal, Jhelum, Rawalpindi and Attock as
depicted in the Map1(Mahmood et al., 2016). On the western and eastern side the plateau is
bounded by Indus river and Jhelum river respectively. Two characteristic mountain ranges

dominating the region are Kala Chitta and salt ranges.it covers an area of 13,000 square km
and constitute 10% of total agricultural productivity of the country(Adnan et al., 2009).
Map 1: Location of Potohar Plateau( Source: Amir et al., 2019).
Rashid et al (2004) reported rainfall range of the area between 300mm to 1500mm.
Maximum of the rainfall (about 65%) is recorded during the monsoon season and two
particular months July and August are reported to receive higher rainfall which in turn
support agricultural crops. Another study reported mean annual rainfall range of 750mm,
significantly higher in the northwest side of the plateau while decrease is noted in southwest
side (Khan & Joergensen, 2006). Whilst the temperature ranges being recorded during
summer and winter are 15oC to 40oC and 4oC to 25oC respectively(GoP, 2016).
Figure1.1: Land cover Distribution of Potohar Plateau.(Source: Amir et al., 2019).

Map 2: Average Annual Rainfall of Potohar Region. (Source: Iqbal, 2018).
1.2. Soil Type of the Region
In general, soils of the rainfed tract of northern Punjab i.e. Potohar Plateau are highly variant
in term of their physicochemical properties because of the characteristic parent material and
landforms. Sedimentary rocks are reported as the dominant parent material of the area and
both processes of soil formation alluvium and colluvium are being documented (Hussain et
al., 2013). Out of 12 universal soil orders, 3 being prevalent in the region are Alfisol, Entisol
and Inceptisol (Rashid et al., 2004). Naturally soils of the region are found to be deficient in
term of soil organic matter and soil moisture content due to the dominating arid type climatic
conditions. In addition plant’s growth stimulating nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus
are also marked as inadequately available(Khan & Joergensen, 2006). Farmers of this region
categories their soil into two broader types; the one is Mera that is less fertile soil with
minimal to no soil organic matter while the other one is Lepara the fertile one with sufficient
organic matter to support agricultural productivity (Obaid-ur-Rehman et al., 2010).

Map 3: Soil Types of Potohar Region. (Source; Iqbal, 2018).
2. Soil Physiochemical Properties
Following are the reported physiochemical characteristics of the soils of the Potohar region;
2.1. pH
Due to stronger impact of parent material and other natural factors such as climatic
conditions, pH of the area is attested as slightly alkaline to moderately alkaline in nature. In
this context Khan and Joergensen (2006) reported a mean pH value of 7.7 after analyzing 11
representative sites of the Potohar region. A relatively higher pH(7.5-8.1) was observed in
samples collected from Chakwal district while Rawalpindi district showed comparatively
lower pH values (7.5-7.8). Another study reported approximately similar pH value that is 8
and 8.1 in districts of Chakwal and Attock respectively (Rashid et al., 1997). While in
another study Rashid et al (1997) reported a pH value of 8.3 in Jhelum districts while
relatively higher pH value that is 8.5 was reported in area surrounded by salt range
specifically in Khewra. Obaid-ur-Rehman et al (2010) conducted a study focused on
characterization of Attock district based on salinity and fertility status and documented that
about 95% of the soils in the area has a pH range between 7.5 to 8.5. while the rest of 5%

exhibits pH higher than 8. Whereas the pH range in representative samples from Rawalpindi
district was reported to be 6.8-8.6 and the higher pH value was attributed to heavy metal
contamination in the studied area (Mushtaq & Khan, 2010). In order to analyze soil
characteristics of Chakwal district a study was conducted by Khalid et al (2012) which
reported the 64% soils of the area showed an average pH of 7.9 and variation ranges from
7.0 to 8.7. in contrast 6% of the analyzed samples indicated the pH > 8.5.
2.2. Soil Texture
Texture is basically composition of soil in term of sand, silt and clay particles which impart
special properties to soil. Soils of rainfed Potohar domain show diversity in context of soil
texture. The soils of the area are mainly grouped as silt clay loam, silt loam and clay loam
(Kazmi & Rasool., 2009). The soil of district Chakwal shows textural variation from sandy
loam to loam. A study reported 69% of sand, 21% silt and 10% of the clay content in the soil
of Chakwal district with the textural class of sandy loam ( Islam et al., 2013). Similar to
Chakwal, soils of Attock district are also sandy loam to loam in their texture. 78% of the soils
are reported to be loam in texture while 21% are sandy loam (Obaid-ur-Rehman et al., 2010).
The average ratio of sand, silt and clay in soils of Rawalpindi district of Potohar region is
illustrated in a study as 30% ,60% and 10% respectively(Khan & Joergensen, 2006).
2.3. Organic Matter
Numerous studies conducted in different aspects reported that the soils of Potohar Plateau are
deficient in term of soil organic matter. In addition to natural unavailability of SOM the
prolonged summer with higher temperature also intensifies the decomposition rate of SOM
which leaves the soil with poor organic content( Khan & Joergensen, 2006; Khalid et al.,
2011). Soils of district Chakwal are reported of organic matter deficient. In a study conducted
to characterize soil properties of the area only 11% of representative soil samples showed
standard SOM value that is greater than 0.86%. In contrast a greater proportion of soils (86%)
had negligible amount of SOM (Khalid et al., 2012).
Similarly 90% of soil from Attock district are categorized as ‘Soils with poor Organic matter’
while only 8% are found to contain satisfactory level of SOM(> 0.86%) (Obaid-ur-Rehman
et al., 2010). Mahmood et al (1998) reported similar result for Rawalpindi district and
notified that almost 90% of soil of the area is meager in term of SOM. The range of SOM in
the wheat field being reported varies from 0.19 -1.1 % in surface layer of the soil (0-15cm
depth) and 0.05-1% in subsurface layer of the soil (15-30cm depth) in Attock district. While

variation in SOM range in surface layer and subsurface layer of similar depth is reported as
0.07–0.97% and 0.05–0.81% respectively in Chakwal district which is relatively low
(Rafique et al., 2006). The average value of SOM for district Jhelum is reported as 0.74%
(Rashid et al., 1997).
2.4. Soil Color
Soils of the Potohar region formed by wind deposits are reported to be dark brown to dark
yellowish in color. In contrast soil formed by alluvial deposits are brownish in color( Majeed
et al., 2010).
3. Crop Profile
About 994,000 ha area of the Potohar region is under cultivation out of which only 4% is
irrigated to maximize the agricultural productivity while the remaining 96% is
rainfed(Majeed et al., 2010). The detail of landcover under cultivation of agricultural crops
for each district is given in table 3.1:
Table 3.1: Agricultural land (in percentage) in districts of Potohar in year 2017.
District Rawalpindi Chakwal Jhelum Islamabad Attock
Area 38.52% 68.65% 37.35% 37.32% 69.17%
(Source: Amir et al., 2019).
The main crops of the region include wheat (Triticum vulgare), maize (Zea mays), sorghum
(Sorghum bicolor), millets (Panicum miliaceum), groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) brassica
(Brassica rapa) and gram (Cicer arietinum). (Amir et al., 2019).
Wheat is the characteristic winter crop of the Potohar. A study reported that Potohar region
has a potential to produce more than 1200 Kg/acre wheat the core crop of the Pakistan and
this production level plays a vital role in lowering the import burden of the country(Ashraf,
2004). Followed by wheat the second chief cereal of the plateau and third one of the country
is maize that serve as feed, food and fodder.it is usually planted in the region after the
inception of monsoon season following the month of July due to abundant availability of
rainwater in the area to support plant growth. The optimal growing season of this cereal in
Potohar region is four months starting from July and culminating in October (87-90 days)
(Rashid, 2011).

4. Nutrient Availability in Potohar Plateau Soils
Myriad studies conducted for analyzing the nutrient concentration in the region depicted
that the soils of the area are deficient in various nutritious elements both micro as well as
macro. The detail is given below:
4.1. Macronutrients
The soils of Potohar Plateau are low in Phosphorus (P) and Nitrogen (N), while Potassium
(K) content is adequate (Rashid, 2011). Almost more than 90% of soils are deficient in
Phosphorus and 15-25% in Potassium (Rashid et al., 2004). The soils of Pakistan usually
have rich mica content thus having adequate level of K in the soils. A survey conducted in
the 11 arable areas of Potohar region illustrated low N and P content having average values of
0.32 and 0.61 mg (g soil) -1 respectively (Khan & Joergensen, 2006). Obaid-ur-Rehman et al
(2010) reported available Phosphorus being less than 7mg P/kg soil in 99.49% of 20711 soil
samples collected from all tehsils of Attock district. The soil characteristics of district
Chakwal were evaluated which revealed that 86% of samples were poor in a P whereas, the
status of K was satisfactory, 68% samples had adequate K content. The P was in the range
2.1-4.0 mg/kg and K ranged in 81-120 mg/kg (Khalid et al., 2012). Shaheen (2016) reported
the deficiency of P in 95% surface soils (0.76- 1.67 mg kg-1) and 100% sub soils (0.22- 1.22
mg kg-1), tehsil Gujar Khan of Rawalpindi district whereas, the K content was sufficient,
63% of surface soil had marginal amount K content and 5% were having adequate amount of
K. In case of subsoil, 52% had marginal quantity of K contents.
4.2. Micronutrients
Soils of Potohar Plateau face a serious problem of nutrient deficiency because the nutrient
removals far exceed the nutrient addition which imbalances the nutrient availability in soil.
The deficiencies of various micronutrients are found in the soils of all the four districts
Rawalpindi, Jhelum, Attock and Chakwal. Several studies conducted in these areas shows
deficiency of various micronutrients. The most common deficiencies are of Zinc (Zn), Iron
(Fe) and Boron (B) whereas, the deficiency of Manganese (Mn) and Copper (Cu) are not
widespread as compared to Zn, B and Fe.

4.2.1. Zinc
Zinc (Zn) deficiency is commonly found in the alkaline-calcareous soils of arid and semiarid
regions including Potohar Plateau. The main reason behind Zn deficiency is low-Zn solubility
and high fixation of Zn fixation under such soil conditions. Several researchers have been
conducted which shows Zn deficiency in the crops of Potohar Plateau. A study conducted by
Rashid et al (1997) showed that sorghum crop was deficient in 64% fields in Chakwal district
and 54% in Jhelum district. In another study carried out in district Attock and Chakwal
showed Zn deficiency in wheat crops (Rafique et al., 2006). Zia et al (2004) reported the
deficiencies of Zn in the rain-fed areas after obtaining results from 329 samples in a time
period of seven months.
4.2.2. Boron
Boron (B) deficiency is found in all soil types. But it more common in alkaline calcareous
soils containing low organic matter content. Although the B content is greater in such soil but
due its low solubility it becomes a major problem. The soils of Potohar Plateau are deficient
in B content (Rashid, 1993). The B availability tends to decrease in the soil with high pH. A
study carried out by Rashid et al (1997) revealed B deficiency in sorghum crop in 50% of
field samples of district Jhelum and Chakwal. Similarly, the peanuts in the rainfed areas of
Potohar are found to be deficient in B content (Rashid et al., 1997).
4.2.3 Copper
The deficiency of Cu content in Potohar soils is not problematic(Rashid et al., 1996).
Availability of Cu in soil is affected by high pH, low organic matter and sandy texture soils.
With the increase in pH the Cu availability decrease due to low solubility and increase
sorption of Cu on soil colloids. There is a rapid decrease above pH 7 and the Cu deficiency is
believed to be a common problem in alkaline soils formed on a calcareous parent material. In
Pakistan the Cu deficiency is less common that Zn, B and Fe because Cu is more strongly
bounded than Zn, B and Fe on organic matter, hence its deficiency is comparatively more on
organic soils (Shaheen, 2016).
4.2.4. Manganese
Pakistani soils contain sufficient available Mn and crops rarely response to Mn fertilizers.
The soils of Potohar Plateau have adequate Mn content and its deficiency is not widespread
like Zn, B and Fe (Shaheen, 2016). A study was conducted in Fatehjang tehsil of district to

evaluate the nutrient content of the farmland areas illustrated the deficiency of nutrients in
order N >P> B> Fe > Cu. 100% of the samples where deficient in N, P, Zn and B where as no
deficiency of Mn was found only except in the 9% of samples (Shaheen et al., 2008). Alvi
and his co-workers (2011) conducted a study on micronutrients in the soils of Hazro area of
District Attock revealed that the soils were deficient of Fe, Mn and Zn, while Cu content was
adequate. In contrast, study conducted by Shaheen (2016) reported deficiency of Zn, and B
whereas Mn, Fe and Cu content were sufficient in the soils of tehsil Gujar Khan of district
Rawalpindi.
4.2.5. Iron
The deficiencies of Fe in peanut crop are seen in the soils of district Chakwal and Jhelum,
and the peanut crops suffer from iron chlorosis (Rashid et al., 1997). Rashid and Rafique
(1988) reported 3% of soils from 140 soil samples were deficient in Fe.
5. Problems of Potohar Soils
Potohar Plateau being a rainfed area confronts serious threats of decreased soil fertility and
soil loss because of the uneven weather patterns, topography in addition with irrational
anthropogenic activities. The prominent constrains faced by the area includes soil erosion,
moisture stress, shallow tillage, nutrition depletion and soil compaction. These all factors are
contributing to decrease the annual production potential of the area which is ultimately
affecting the socioeconomic status of the residents which are highly dependent on agricultural
output for living(Irshad et al., 2007; Shah et al., 2011). The detailed analysis of the problem
of Potohar soil is as follow:
5.1. Soil Erosion
Soil loss in form of water erosion is the main delinquent faced by Potohar region. Studies
suggest that almost erosion in its all forms is persistent in the area. A considerable part
reflects the presence of gulley erosion followed by rill and sheet erosion of cultivated
landforms. The reason behind the issue is steep slope based topography of the area and about
50% of rain water is reported to be lost as runoff. A common agricultural practice that is
continuous shallow tillage, promote the soil erosion by water. In addition to this, decreased
organic content of the Potohar soils and the activities of burrowing animals also promote this
phenomenon (Mian & Mirza, 1993; Farooq et al., 2007). In addition to water erosion, wind

erosion is also promoting the soil loss of the region. Annual soil loss reported by Iqbal(2018)
with respect to Potohar districts is as follow:
Table. 5.1 Total soil loss (million tons) of the Potohar region.
District Soil loss (Million Tons)
Chakwal 94.9
Rawalpindi 164.7
Jhelum 83.4
Attock 81.4
Total 424.4
(Source: Iqbal, 2018).
Map 4: Soil Erosion Severity Classes of Potohar Region. (Source: Iqbal, 2018)
5.2. Nutrient deficiency
Due to climatic factors and the intensive agricultural practices the soils of the rainfed Potohar
regions are found to contain minimal to negligible amount of growth supporting nutrients in
the soil specifically soil organic matter. Additionally the use of fertilizers to meet the nutrient
demand is also controversial which is making the soil infertile on progressive basis. A study
reported that optimal limit of Nitrogen suggested for rainfed wheat is 71 kg/ha while applied
by farmers is only 32kg/ha. This factor is impacting the soil’s productive potential. In

addition the soils of the region are reported with zinc, iron and boron deficiency in a
percentage of 67%, 71% and 60% in a respective manner. Due to these deficiencies the soil
system of the area is fragile, thus extensive agricultural practices damage the soil structure
and reduces its capacity for water holding which in turn impact soil productivity(Baig et al.,
2013).
5.3. Soil compaction and crusting
The soils of Potohar regions face deleterious problems of soil compaction and crusting that
are known to decrease water infiltration and increase run-off thus causing soil erosion.
Addition to that, it also effects gas exchange between soil and atmosphere and inhibit seed
germination. Thus, soil compaction and crusting reduce crop yield and makes agronomic
activities difficult to achieve (Baig et al., 2013).
5.4. Soil moisture and water shortage
It happens rarely in the rainfed areas of Potohar that the natural precipitation is satisfactory
during growing season to sustain economic crop yield. So, the soils of Potohar faces serious
problem of low soil moisture and water stress. A study reported that approximately 50%-60%
of annual rainwater is lost as a result of water run-off. Thus causing water shortage and
erosion in the areas having medium to high rainfall (Alam, 2000; Baig et al., 2013).
5.5. Deforestation.and.weed infestation
Though deforestation is a widespread problem of Pakistan but Potohar region is specifically
suffering from soil deterioration because of reduced defensive mechanism which is generally
provided by the optimal forest cover. Deforestation hampered soil quality as soil erosion is
promoted due to reduced soil holding that is ecological service provided by trees(Anjum et
al., 2010). Another problem in rainfed Potohar tract is heavy infestation of weeds which
strictly hampered the crop yields. These weeds are basically competitor of the main crop in
term of space, light, nutrients and moisture content. This issue require special attention to
improve the agricultural productivity(Baig et al., 2013). A survey in the mustard field of
district Chakwal revealed a total of 42 weed species infestation across the whole district
(Nasir & Sultan, 2004).
6. Soil Management Strategies