Challenges in Preschool Education: Oral Language Skills in Sri Lanka

This report explores the challenges encountered by preschool teachers in the Batticaloa district of Sri Lanka in fostering oral language skills among young learners. It identifies key issues such as a lack of resources, the absence of a standardized curriculum, and insufficient training programs for teachers, all of which significantly impact children's language development. The report highlights the importance of early communication skills for social and educational development, noting that deficiencies can lead to behavioral problems and academic struggles. Through interviews with administrators, the study reveals disparities in resource availability between urban and rural preschools, the influence of home language on children's progress, and the need for technological aids to support children with physical disabilities. The report concludes with recommendations for addressing these challenges, including increased resource allocation, curriculum development, and comprehensive training programs for preschool teachers to improve the quality of early childhood education.

RESEARCH

Table of Contents
Discussion........................................................................................................................................3
Recommendations -.........................................................................................................................4
REFERENCES................................................................................................................................6

Discussion
Overview
Because language development is not a single entity, it is frequently broken down into its
basic pieces. The divide between expression and comprehension, or receptive language, is one of
the first. The former is made up of both vocal and nonverbal expressions at first (gesturing, turn
taking, body language etc.). Verbal expression includes not just the words that a kid uses, but
also the grammar that emerges about the age of two as the youngster begins to string words
together. Although most languages follow similar patterns, there are few exceptions. Although
the majority of these skills are learned by the time a child enters school, they continue to develop
over time. The child's vocabulary grows, but so does their ability to express themselves clearly.
Along with the more evident components of speech and language, the child's social interaction
and pragmatic abilities are developed.
Then Quality early childhood care education practice
Early childhood is defined as period which starts from birth to eight years old. This
requires more preparation than a primary school. The main objective of this program is holistic
development of social, emotional and cognitive needs for developing solid and broad foundation
for wellbeing and learning. This is one of the best investment that Srilanka can have. The
government of Sri Lanka recognizes the central importance within education for human as well
as economic development. This country provides free access for primary as well as secondary
education. It is evaluated that government is not providing preprimary education to children. Sri
Lanka government focuses upon expanding the access for preprimary education. There is limited
availability for childcare services in SriLanka and these are managed through multisector
approach.
Quality of inputs such as environment and instruction, effectiveness of agencies are responsible
such as teacher-child relationship, quality of effects such as child adaptability to the classroom,
and monitoring and quality assurance mechanisms such as administration of teaching can all be
used to assess the quality of early childhood education. Further, in essence, both structural and
procedural quality can be used to assess the quality of early childhood education. In general,
internal validity refers to measures that can be controlled at the project level, such as sample
sizes and instructor attributes, such as educational attainment. Children's spoken language skills

continue to be important in their overall development throughout their lives. Oral language skills,
according to research, assists personal relationships and sustains social bonds on a regular basis
(Konza 2016). According to Konza (2016), preschool instructors have specialized knowledge
from their pre-service training and experience that allows them to effectively impact children'
language skills. The early phases of a child's language development are critical for enhancing
their oral language skills and ensuring their long-term growth (Brodin and Renblad 2020). Oral
language, according to Rajapaksha (2016:16), is defined as "the ability to listen to spoken
language and reply."
The aim of this study was to examine the challenges encountered by preschool teachers to
improve the oral language skills of preschool learners in the Batticaloa district, Sri Lanka.
Considering the quality early childhood care and education the current study found 3 main equity
issues including lack of resources, no standard curriculum, lack of training program (in-service,
pre-service) to improve the quality of early childhood education. These factors affected oral
language skills development of young children. Various factors influence the development of
spoken language abilities in children, which should be targeted. Resolving these variables,
necessitates “collaborative forms of family and sports interactions.” This section examines many
factors in this context, including resources, which include mental, non-material, and
technological elements. Preschool curriculum, which is a criteria process focused on fostering
children' involvement in skill learning, baby classroom and tactics, teaching resources, and
preschool teachers' qualifications, as well as leadership training, are all examined. In Sri Lanka,
the lack of a comprehensive preschool curriculum leads to a lack of clear pedagogical principles,
which are critical for fostering developmentally appropriate behaviors. Mukunthan (2020), in
support of this argument, stated that there is no clear standard curriculum in Sri Lankan
preschools. This helps to understand why each preschool teacher focuses on their favorite subject
in the classroom. Furthermore, early childhood education in Sri Lanka is ignored due to the lack
of a uniform curriculum for preschoolers. In particular, in compared to other countries such as
the United States and the United Kingdom there is good preschool oral learning. Preschool
educators are working on a variety of ways to help toddlers improve their spoken language skills.
Circle time talks, teacher-learner routine interactions, reading and narration of stories, and
description of pictures accompanying topic development are examples of these approaches.

Certain patterns of teacher talk can be used to see if their "talk behaviors [of teachers] enhance
children's language use" and how their talk can help them acquire language abilities. In
Australia, they conducted a study involving preschool and primary school teachers. They
discovered that instructors' conversations had a direct impact on the development of language
abilities and learning outcomes in preschoolers. Peer interaction is an excellent learning
approach because it improves language usage in children in their early years. According to the
author, peer interaction should be fostered in order to offer youngsters with skills and help them
enhance their oral language. According to Mouro (2018), children in the preoperational phase,
which spans the ages of two to seven years, participate in social contact that helps them improve
their language abilities through activities like playing games and studying. According to Mouro
(2018), the preschool years are critical in the development of children's language skills because
most children learn skills through social interaction during this time. Early communication skills
have ramifications for a child's social and educational development throughout childhood and
into adulthood. Language competency has been shown to be an important scaffolding for
learning preparedness, since well-developed communication and word abilities are essential for a
successful start in school. Children who struggle with primary language have a higher chance of
having behavioural, emotional, and social problems. This increases the likelihood of their being
expelled from school and, in the worst-case scenario, leading to involvement with the criminal
justice system. As a result, communication is critical in the early years of a child's existence.
Recommendations -
To overcome these problems, there are some recommendations have to follow to get quality early
childhood education. The government and administrators have to make sure that allocation of the
resources for all preschools and resources are available for all preschools teachers.
 Further, administrators have to concentrate about curriculum which is available in the
preschool teachers and have to evaluate how much understanding have about the curriculum
by preschool teachers.
 Proper funding should be initiated for developing pre-school learning strategies
 The administrators have to give the priority to give the training (pre-service, in-service)
program for preschool teachers and make sure that availability of the all-preschool teachers
to receive the training program.

Chapter 4: FINDINGS
1.1 Introduction
The current chapter presents the finding obtained from the data analysis. The chapter is divided
into two broad sections. The first section highlights findings based on the data gathered from the
two administrator interviews. The second section covers the survey results obtained from the
eight preschool teachers.
1.2 Administrators interview data
The interviews were carried out with two administrators - Sam (Administrator 1), and Smith
(Administrator 2). This section is separated into two main parts that are further subdivided into
themes. The first section involves the opinions of the administrators as to the challenges that
preschool teachers face when trying to improve language skills of young learners. The major
themes in this case included resources, child-related issues, training, and lack of knowledge. The
next section explored in the chapter is the role of the administrators and government in
supporting preschool children’s language learning. The major themes that were identified in this
second part included supervision, obtaining resources, offering support, and conducting teacher
training programs.
1.2.1 Challengers encountered by preschool teachers to improve the oral language skills
of preschoolers.
Theme 1: Resources
When the administrators were asked about the challenges encountered by preschool teachers
regarding improving the language skills of preschool learners, they both indicated the lack of
resources as a major issue. Although Sam (Administrator 1) recognised that preschool teachers
have access to handicraft materials, handmade aids, and stationery items, he also pointed to a
lack of technological aids as a major problem by noting: “Both the teachers and children do not
have technological resources such as audio and video materials. This is a huge issue for them”.
This comment highlights that this administrator views technological aids as important in helping

teachers to execute the classroom activities effectively, thereby improving learning outcomes.
Similar views were shared by Smith (Administrator 2), who indicated that the resources related
to technological aids are required to support preschool children, especially those who exhibit
physical disabilities. Concerning the issue, Smith stated that:
In this situation, teachers need a lot of learning tools and resources to assist the
children. For example, if children have a hearing impairment, the children should have
hearing aids so that they can understand. Those special devices are very, very rare in our
regions.
From this quote, the administrator feels that preschool children may fail to improve language
development because they have certain physical deficiencies. Therefore, the preschool teachers
should be provided with suitable teaching tools and resources to enable them support the children
with physical challenges during language learning. Although in-service training of preschool
teachers can enhance their abilities to handle children with diverse disabilities (noted in a later
section of the findings), certain resources, such as technological aids, are crucial in facilitating
the process. Further, Smith shared that: “If teachers do not have access to the relevant
technological aids, teachers cannot bring out the full potential in children in terms of language
skills”. In this respect, it is realised that technological aids were crucial in enabling teachers to
effectively support the children to improve their language learning. Smith further elaborated that:
“There is a lack of resources in order to gain successful language development of the children.
In the current situation, audio and visual aids are also much needed”. These comments show
that although many resources are required for successful language development, visual and audio
aids are emphasised by both administrators as important in ensuring all children are actively
involved in the learning process.
The other similarity in the analysis of administrators’ comments involves the location of
resources that affect children’s access to preschool services, including classroom activities that
influence language learning such as visual aids. In particular, Sam highlighted that: “Very few
preschools have the required resources to be able to successfully conduct preschool activities.
The majority of preschools do not have the required space or resources in Sri Lanka”. The view
by Sam resonated with that of Smith, who highlighted that there was a disparity in accessing
resources between urban and rural preschools by explaining: “Even if these resources are

available to urban preschools that are closer to the city, children from rural areas are still not
given the required resources”. It appears from these comments that few children can access
high-quality preschool education because only a few preschools have adequate resources and
space to provide a comprehensive learning activity, and these are more likely to be located in
cities. Therefore, location is a key factor that influences the ability of preschool children to
access the resources they require to learn language skills.
Theme 2: Factors influencing children’s progress
The key issues identified under this theme entail factors that directly impact preschool children’s
ability to engage in language learning within the classroom. The theme explores three main sub-
themes, which include the influence of home language and setting, health issues, and classroom
behaviour. The sub-themes are explained next.
The home
Concerning children’s progress in developing their language ability, a similar point was raised by
both administrators, who stated that children’s language development was impeded by the
influence of the home language. Specifically, Sam noted that the children tended to use more
colloquial phrases at home, often forgetting the language skills taught in preschools. Regarding
the issue, Sam stated that:
Children pick up more colloquial phrases used at home and have a tendency to forget the
vocabulary which was taught in preschools. Therefore, they use more colloquial phrases
picked up at home rather than taught in preschools.
This statement shows how administrators recognize the difficulty faced by preschool teachers
when implementing any progress on children’s language development since the home language
influence is significant. Similar views were shared by Smith, who noted that preschool teachers
should distinguish the various backgrounds of the children to assist them. Smith stated that:
“Therefore, the first problem faced by the preschool teachers is to identify the children from
different home environments and different backgrounds”. In this regard, the issue with children’s
language acquisition was considered to vary depending on the specific home background and
environment. As a result, different modes of teaching have to be implemented. The different
home environments and backgrounds noted by both Sam and Smith refer to “socio-economic”

differences that are thought to greatly impact language learning development. For instance,
Smith noted that some children who come from families affected by some home issues often
expressed psychological problems, making it difficult for teachers to develop language skills.
Smith shared that:
When we have such children with us, it is difficult to evaluate their language capacity
because these children will have psychological effects from their home situation. Thus, it
may be hard to evaluate the language skills in these children.
This highlights that these children may be affected by psychological problems that preschool
teachers would need to address to promote positive learning outcomes. This raises the question
of how prepared preschool teachers are to address such problems.
Health issues
Smith pointed to the health problems of children as challenges to preschool teaching and learning
activities. He further stated that health is an important determinant of academic performance and
progress since the development of various body organs aided learning. Smith stated that:
The reason is, sometimes, the children having a tongue-twisting problem or autism or
some physically weak children, and sometimes the children having a hearing defect and
eye defects, there will be issues for those children to concentrate and listen to the
teachers. This is a huge challenge for the teachers in the language development of
preschool children.
Smith indicates that preschool teachers in Sri Lanka seek health interventions for children before
initiating the learning process. The other issue identified is that the health problems such as
hearing defects and eye defects lead to lower concentration of the children and undermine their
learning outcomes. On this issue, Smith further commented: “For instance, if children have a
hearing impairment, the children should have hearing aids so that they can understand.
Similarly, if there are children who cannot see, the teacher should then use audio resources to
aid their explanation”.
Classroom behaviour

A significant point indicated by Sam was that sometimes children failed to cooperate in the
classroom which led to negative learning outcomes. Specifically, Sam pinpointed that: “While
the preschool activities have been carried out by the teachers, all the children are not
cooperating in classroom activities”. This comment indicates that it is also crucial to improve
the children’s social skills, which influences their behaviour while in the classroom. Sam also
highlighted that the children’s lack of cooperation in the classroom is influenced by other
negative behaviours such as poor attendance, which implies the children miss key language
learning lessons. Specifically, Sam noted that: “The poor attendance of preschool children….
are the key reasons for this”. This comment implies that children’s poor attendance at preschool
is a huge challenge to preschool teachers in improving the children’s language skills as they are
not participating in classroom learning activities.
Theme 3: Training
When asked about other challenges faced by preschool teachers when improving the language
skills of preschool learners in Sri Lanka, both administrators pointed to the element of training,
which includes pre-service training and in-service training programs. Pre-service training entails
the training provided to preschool teachers before they begin their careers, while in-service
training involves continuous career advancement programs to improve teachers skills and
knowledge. In terms of the challenges, Sam outlined the problems faced concerning in-service
training whereas Smith’s main focus was on the key aspects of pre-service training required of
preschool teachers. The issue was explained by Smith who noted that the pre-service training of
preschool teachers goes beyond the academic aspects and includes identifying children with
different abilities to understand the best approaches to use while teaching. Specifically, Smith
explained:
We give training to the preschool teachers so that they can identify and know how to
handle children with learning difficulties, children who are impaired by a disability, or
children with autism and how to teach them within the classroom which is beyond the
teacher’s capacity.
In this data excerpt, Smith articulates that the underlying goal of preschool teachers’ in-service
training is to expand their capacity to handle the different challenges posed by children in the
classroom environment which can affect their language learning process. Moreover, Smith

further indicated that there were in-service training programs organised by the Sri Lankan
government to empower preschool teachers in addressing challenging classroom situations.
Specifically, Smith explained: “In particular, the government of Sri Lanka has been conducting
many training programs to build preschool teachers’ capacity” (Smith 2021).
On the other hand, Sam highlighted that in-service training programs are essential to preschool
teachers to support them to refresh their knowledge and keep updated on the advancements in
language development for preschool children. Sam stated that: “Yes, preschool teachers are
required to undergo in-service training in order to successfully complete their work”. This
comment implies that preschool teachers are required to undertake in-service training, thereby
revealing the importance government places on the continuous improvement for the in-service
preschool teachers. However, Sam’s interview responses further explained that there was
inadequate in-service training for preschool teachers across Sri Lanka. “…. However, preschool
teachers do not have regular in-service training” (Sam 2021).
Moreover, Sam noted that there was no pre-service training for preschool teachers in Sri Lanka
as a preparatory step to teach preschool children by stating that: “With that, all preschool
teachers do not have training in Sri Lanka”. The lack of pre-service training programs revealed
that preschool teachers encountered difficulty in obtained the required skills and knowledge to
support children in language learning. At the same time, Sam pointed to a lack of funds and
resources as a hindrance to the pre-service training of preschool teachers, which can affect the
language learning of children. Specifically, Sam noted that: “Otherwise, training for preschool
teachers will not have enough funds, facilities, and resources”. Sam indicates that adequate
funding of pre-service training programs is required to ensure comprehensive pre-service
training programs for preschool teachers.
Smith pinpointed that pre-service training of preschool teachers enables them to identify and
address challenges of colloquial language issues in the classroom. Specifically, Smith
highlighted that: “Also, the training program informs on how to handle colloquial (slang)
language being used in the preschool classroom”. Smith further observed that in providing pre-
service training, the emphasis should be on ensuring the inclusion of all children so that the
teaching strategies also consider children with special needs. In particular Smith explained:

“Teachers should also be given the training to learn how to identify children with special needs
and how to create an inclusive learning environment in the classroom”. However, Smith also
indicated that more pre-service training of preschool teachers is required to ensure the
improvement of their skills. Smith explained that: “However, it would be better to give more
training programs to the teachers regarding language improvement”. This commentary from
Smith highlights that he believes that currently preschool teachers do not receive adequate pre-
service training on language development and hence, there is a need to expand the existing pre-
service training programs.
Theme 4: Lack of teacher’s knowledge
The administrators also highlighted challenges related to the lack of teacher’s knowledge on
preschool children’s language skills development. Sam and Smith both pointed to the lack of
knowledge on how to effectively teach the children to avoid the colloquial phrases based upon
their native language. In particular, Sam noted that teachers experienced a major challenge in
teaching children to use formal language structure instead of colloquial language in the
classroom. Sam stated that: “While considering the language skills of the children, it was
particularly challenging for preschool teachers to bring changes to the colloquial phrases that
the children use in conversation at home”. Sam further articulated that: “Some teachers may not
have the appropriate knowledge to change the language of the children”. Sam’s comment
indicates that when training preschool teachers, they should be informed on how to identify
children who are significantly affected by native language dialects and the best teaching
approaches to use in addressing the issue. This view of Sam was supported by Smith, who noted
preschool teachers’ lack of knowledge related to using one method in teaching the children
without consideration of revision or any changes. This implies that most preschool teachers
employ the same teaching approach, which did not ensure challenges of colloquial phrases
among the children are comprehensively addressed. Smith further pointed out that preschool
teachers utilise the same teaching strategies, which means that children with special needs may
not be sufficiently involved in the learning process. In particular Smith highlighted that: “As I
said at the beginning when teachers are teaching the same way they are facing lots of
challenges”. Moreover, Smith highlighted that the colloquial phrases from home conversations
impede proper structured language skill development by stating that: “However, the colloquial

language spoken at home and the language taught at preschool are being a complication for the
children”. Therefore, the children’s local slang most likely interferes with the preschool
children’s language learning.
Besides the inability for changing children’s colloquial language, the responses revealed that
there was a belief that teachers’ lack of knowledge of organising and conducting lessons affected
learning outcomes. In this respect, Smith noted that some preschool teachers do not demonstrate
appropriate strategies for managing the classroom activities during the lessons and were often
overwhelmed or disorganized. This can be seen in Smith’s response where he stated:
The challenge for the teachers is the lack of knowledge about the way of classroom
control and teaching methodology.It will be difficult for the teachers to individually focus
on each child while approaching all the children effectively.
In this data excerpt, Smith positioned teachers as being affected by divided attention and
inadequate knowledge of teaching approaches to engage all the children in classroom learning
effectively.
1.2.2 The role of the government and administrators in supporting the improvement of
young learners’ language skills.
The role of administrators and government in supporting preschool language learning was
explored to understand areas where improvements could be made. Moreover, the analysis helped
to increase knowledge of what supports are available and how teachers can seek this support
from government and administrators when dealing with issues of preschool learning. Analysis of
the data identified three key themes including supervision, obtaining resources and offering
support, and conducting teacher training programmes. The themes are discussed in detail below.
Theme 1: supervision
Both administrators interviewed in the study acknowledged their supervisory roles as important
in assisting preschool teachers in improving language skills development. According to Sam,
supervision is the ‘duty’ of educational officers in Sri Lanka as educational officers are entrusted
with reviewing preschool educational programs. Furthermore, Sam explained that supervision in

the context of preschool learning involves the educational officers identifying key issues arising
in preschool education and discussing the issues with the preschool teachers in an effort to reach
a solution. Sam stated that:
There is an Educational Officer as well as a Divisional Secretary in Sri Lanka which
handles preschool education. There are officers who have been assigned roles to aid in
the Preschool education sector. I am one of the officers who have been given duties and
responsibilities regarding this. According to that, I have supervised preschools and
identified the issues that may arise as well as discussed with preschool teachers to help
them in solving the issues at hand.
Sam’s understanding of his role as an Educational Officer was supported by those of Smith, who
highlighted that after the administrators have identified the issues facing the preschool teachers’,
they cooperate with other organisations to create a solution. For example, Smith explained that:
“Due to the World Bank project, we are also planning to make the preschool teacher’s diploma
free of charge.” From the data analysis, it appears that administrators are important in ensuring
the recommendations they make after supervision are followed up and implemented to enable
teachers to improve their skills and promote language learning among preschool children. For
instance, by providing teachers’ a free diploma program, the administrators enable more teachers
to access training opportunities, improving the overall quality of preschool education.
Theme 2: Obtaining Resources and Offering Support
Another role of the administrators is obtaining resources and offering support to the preschool
teachers to improve the language skills of the young learners. Sam explained that it is the
responsibility of officials to ensure that resources required for language learning were provided
to preschool teachers. These were resources from non-government organisations such as “World
Vision” and also from “well-wishers” from local villages. Sam viewed the sourcing of resources
as his contribution in ensuring preschool teachers have the resources to improve children’s
language skills. Sam stated that: “I’m able to help preschools by getting resources from both
non-governmental organisations as well as well-wishers of the village”. (Sam 2021). Sam’s
views demonstrated that he considered administrators as being committed to ensuring that
preschools have the necessary resources for supporting the language development of young

learners. Similarly, Smith emphasised that District Coordinators are in charge of offering support
to preschool teachers and preschool children. The support comes in the form of resource
acquisition for the education of children between the ages of 0-5 years, even though the
interviewees spoke mainly about resources for children of the ages 3-5 years. In particular Smith
highlighted that: “We are giving the support to preschool teachers and preschool children. And
…. our work is mainly targeting under 5 years of age. … We equally develop both education and
infrastructure development”. Smith’s comment implies that the coordinators support both the
children and teachers by creating a framework that guides them on which resources to use during
the learning process.
Theme 3: Conducting Teacher Training Programs
The administrators also indicated that with the help of government support, they provided
training programs to the preschool teachers. Specifically, Sam noted that teachers required
knowledge to address the different needs of preschool children in order to impact their lives
positively through the strengthening of oral language skills. Sam explained that: “I conduct
model teaching demonstrations for the teachers in the places which need this”. Similar views
were shared by Smith, who highlighted that the administrators offer training to preschool
teachers to help them identify and know how to effectively handle children who experience
learning difficulties such as having an impairment or various forms of disabilities. Smith
explained that: “…we give training to the preschool teachers so that they can identify and know
how to handle children with learning difficulties, children who are impaired by a disability, or
children with autism”. It appears from the interview data that the administrators support the
preschool teachers to build their ability to teach language skills to their young learners.
1.3 Preschool teachers Qualtrics survey data
This section presents findings from the online survey for early childhood teachers in Sri Lanka.
In total eight preschool teachers completed the survey. Demographic data relating to these
teacher respondents will be presented first followed by the analysis of the responses to the survey
questions - both qualitative and quantitative. The demographic data indicates the different

characteristics of preschool teachers involved in the survey such as their qualifications, years of
experience, as well as their training. The quantitative data analysis reveals the major trends from
the survey, including language learning tools and resources utilised, support available from
administrators, government and parents, also preschool curriculum and challenges. The
qualitative analysis shows the views of participants from open-ended questions asked in the
survey such as preschool teaching practice, challenges faced by preschool teachers, and available
support to improve learners’ language skills.
1.3.1 Demographic information
The demographic information concentrates on the preschool teachers’ qualifications, years of
teaching experience, and training programs they undertook. Even though all selected preschool
teachers have a qualification for preschool teaching, there were variations in type of
qualification. In Table 4.1, eight preschool teachers completed the survey and their qualifications
are indicated in two main columns involving Sri Lanka Qualification Framework (SLQF) and
National Vocational Qualification Framework (NVQF).
Teachers Qualifications SLQF NVQF
Anne
Completed preschool and primary education successfully in
a private educational centre. - -
Rose Diploma in preschool, National Vocational Qualification
level 4(NVQ 4). - NVQ 4
Jean National Vocational Qualification level 3 (NVQ 3),
General Certificates in Education Ordinary Level (O/L). O/L NVQ 3
Nala General Certificates in Education Ordinary Level (O/L),
General Certificates in Education Advanced Level (A/L),
O/L and
A/L
NVQ 4

Diploma training, NVQ level 4.
Peter National Vocational Qualification level 3 (NVQ 3),
General Certificates in Education Ordinary Level (O/L).
O/L NVQ 3
Sophia National Vocational Qualification level 4 (NVQ 4),
Diploma in preschool. - NVQ 4
Daisy General Certificates in Education Ordinary Level (O/L),
National Vocational Qualification level 4 (NVQ 4).
O/L NVQ 4
Emily General Certificates in Education Ordinary Level (O/L),
Diploma in preschool.
O/L -
Table 4.1: Preschool teacher’s Qualifications
From Table 4.1, it is noted that only one teacher (Nala) completed the General Certificate in
Education Advanced Level (G.C.E A/L), (SLQF Level 2) Qualifications, which indicates that
Nala had the highest level of qualifications among the participants. Table 4.1 also shows that
four teachers (Jean, Peter, Daisy and Emily) had General Certificates in Education ordinary level
(G.C.E O/L), (SLQF Level 1) qualification. Further, four of the preschool teachers (Rose, Nala,
Sophia and Daisy) had national vocational qualification (NVQ) level 4, (NVQF level 4) while
one teacher (Peter) had NVQ level 3, (NVQF level 3).
In regards to the teachers teaching experience, the majority of the teachers (75%; n=6) had five
years of preschool teaching experience, while the remaining teachers were equally divided at
12.5% each between 3 years and 4 years of teaching experience. (See Figure 1).

Figure 1: Preschool teachers’ years of experience
The preschool teachers were also asked to note the training they received regarding common
curriculum to ensure the development of children’s language skills. The analysis of the data
revealed that only 50% of the preschool teachers received training related to children’s language
development while the other 50% of preschool teachers had not received any specific training.
The preschool teachers were further asked to explain the curriculum which they followed to
improve the language skills of the young learners. The results showed that there was no common
curriculum followed by preschool teachers, instead they utilised diverse curricula and
experiences in teaching language skills. Specifically, Nala and Peter highlighted that they
followed a “Teacher’s Guide”, in their teaching practice which shows the presence of a standard
curriculum for preschool language teaching. Meanwhile, Sophia and Jean explained that they
mainly employed “exhibition” and “games” to teach the children language skills. Lastly, Daisy
and Rose also indicated that they also engage “exhibitions”, as well as “festivals”, and
“children’s day celebration” in their classroom teaching practice.
1.3.2 Quantitative results

The preschool teachers were asked about the teaching tools and resources they used to improve
the language skills of preschool children and the results are displayed in Figure 2.
1.3.2.1 Language learning tools and resources and frequency of use
Figure 2: Preschool teachers use of teaching tools and resources to improve children’s language
skills.
From Figure 2 it appears that the majority of teachers utilised storytelling (38%) and singing
(38%) as the major teaching tools and resources for enhancing language skills. However, only
one teacher indicated that they generally used games (12%; n =1) as teaching tools and
resources, and another teacher indicated the use of audio and video (12% n =1) technology tools
and resources to improve language skills of preschool children.
The preschool teachers were also asked to report on the frequency of using language
development activities in their classrooms and the results are summarised in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Frequency of using language development activities.
Figure 3 reflects that half of the preschool teachers surveyed often employed language
development activities in their classrooms (50%; n=4), while 38% (n=3) occasionally used
language development activities. Only one teacher (12%; n=1) indicated that they never
incorporated language development activities into their classroom.
1.3.2.2 Available support to improve learners’ language skills
The preschool teachers also responded to questions related to the availability of support to
improve children’s language development skills. Support was categorised as that provided by
administrators, the government, and parents. Figure 4 shows the percentage perceived by the
teachers that was available to support them to improve learners’ language skills for each
category.

Figure 4: Administrators, government, and parents support to improve learners’ language skills.
Figure 4 reveals that there was an equal number of teachers who agreed that they received
administrators’ support (50%) and those who felt that they received no support (50%) from
administrators. Concerning government support, the analysis shows that the majority of
preschool teachers felt that they did not receive any government support (88%; n=7), with only
one teacher (12%; n=1) indicating that they received government support to improve learners’
language skills. Lastly, preschool teachers were asked about parental support concerning
learners’ language skills. The response to this question, as shown in Figure 4, highlights that the
majority of teachers (75%) specified that they received parental support to improve learners’
language skills. Only a couple of the teachers felt that they were not supported by the parents
(25%).
1.3.2.3 Preschool curriculum and challenges
Preschool teachers were also asked about whether they thought the curriculum contained enough
activities to enhance the language skills of learners. Figure 5 shows the teachers responses on
this topic.

Figure 5: Curriculum has enough activities to improve learners’ language skills.
In Figure 5 it is noted that many teachers (63%) indicated that the preschool curriculum does not
have enough activities to improve the language skills of children, compared to 37% of teachers
who thought that it did. This Figure reflects that for a number of the preschool teachers surveyed,
there is a need to increase the number of activities that are targeted at improving the young
learner’s language skills. When asked about whether they faced challenges to improve the
language skills of young learners, all respondents indicated that they experienced challenges.
These challenges will be explained further in the qualitative data analysis section that follows.

1.3.3 Qualitative findings
This section presents the analysis of the qualitative survey data which was obtained from the
eight preschool teachers. In this section, the survey responses are presented under three main
themes involving (1) Preschool teachers’ current approach in teaching practice (2) challenges
encountered by preschool teachers, and (3) available support to preschool teachers. There are
several sub-themes discussed to enable an in-depth insight into the different issues affecting
preschool language learning skills.
Theme 1: Preschool teachers’ current approach in teaching practice
Preschool teachers were asked to comment on their current teaching practice and how it is
executed to support children’s oral language development within the classroom. The analysis
highlights that most preschool teachers including Rose, Jean, Nala and Sophia identified the use
of picture cards as an important resource when improving the language skills of young learners.
Nala further explained that “telling stories using cards” was a valued classroom activity. Rose
and Nala suggested the use of play toys as being crucial for language learning activities, while
Jean implied reading picture cards and singing songs. Jean further explained that “We teach
songs which are available in the textbook.” These approaches highlight that the teachers view
picture cards, toys and songs as important in helping them to execute their teaching practice
effectively to support children’s oral language development in the classroom. Further,
storytelling resonated with the view shared by Nala who highlighted that preschool teachers
combine songs with storytelling during classroom activities. Therefore, the analysis reveals that
preschool teachers are using different materials and approaches in relation to support children’s
oral language development in the classroom.

Theme 2: Challenges encountered by preschool teachers to improve the language skills of
preschool children
Challenge 1: Inadequate resources
When preschool teachers carried out their teaching practice, they faced several difficulties in
their work. Firstly, Sophia, Peter and Rose pointed out that they do not have resources to support
children’s oral language development. Specifically, Sophia indicated that “We do not have many
resources”, while Peter noted that “We do not have resources”. Moreover, Rose highlighted that
“There are no resources at preschool”. Similarly, the analysis showed that except for Emily, all
other preschool teachers - Anne, Rose, Jean, Nala, Peter, Sophia, and Daisy highlighted that they
do not utilise audio/video resources in their teaching activities. This is explained by Anne “There
is no facility in my preschool to use audio and video”, and Rose stated “We do not have audio
and video technological aids in our preschool and insufficient financial resources”. Further,
Jean, Nala, Peter, Sophia, and Daisy stated, “We do not have audio and video technological aids
in our preschool”. Analysis of the data demonstrates that inadequate resources are a key
challenge for preschool teachers in their teaching practice.
Apart from lack of audio and video technological aids, the other challenges highlighted by
preschool teachers included insufficient materials and teaching tools and resources. Specifically,
Jean explained “Teaching tools and resources are inadequate for teaching and learning
activities”, while Peter remarked that “There are insufficient materials to develop language
skills”. Moreover, Jean and Daisy revealed that “There are no playing tools and resources”. In
this context, playing tools include all the physical amenities within the learning environment that
would support children’s play. These includes water play kits, play dough, dress up and role play
tools, blocks and shapes sorters, drawing and painting tools and dolls, among other items.
Resources in this case include all materials that aid class learning process in every subject
category. These include posters, globes and maps that would help learners explore and
understand locations and develop geography skills. Other resources include decorators, and all
others that enhance aesthetics (Georgiev and Nikolova, 2020, p 1692). The analysis demonstrates

that preschool teaches require adequate teaching tools and resources and materials to improve the
language skills of the young learners.
Challenge 2: Children-related Issues
There were two children-related challenges which were identified from the interviews, including
children’s classroom behaviour and children health issues.
Children’s classroom behaviour
Another challenges noted by the preschool teachers’ responses involved children’s classroom
behaviour. For instance, Emily indicated that “Children do not cooperate when doing classroom
activities”, while Daisy observed that “Children are stubborn, crying, angry, reserved, and not
being silent”. Also, Rose indicated that “Due to the shyness children do not actively participate
to sing songs”. These comments confirm that children’s lack of participation in classroom
learning activities due to their behaviour is a challenge for preschool teachers. This view was
supported by Nala who believed that preschool teachers encountered various challenges when
designing classroom activities for language development. Specifically, Nala observed that
“Children are misbehaving while doing classroom activities…and children are willing to get
activity cards mischievously before others while doing language skills activities”. This statement
demonstrates that children’s classroom behaviours are a challenge for preschool teachers when
they are trying to improve the language development of young learners.
Children’s health issues
In developing children’s language ability, the preschool teachers had to confront other challenges
such as children’s health issues. As Rose noted “I am facing a lot of challenges to carry out
teaching and learning activities for children with hearing impairment, short-sightedness and
speech difficulties”. The analysis illustrates that children’s health issues are also a challenge for
preschool teachers to improve their language skills.
Challenge 3: Insufficient support from parents
Preschool teachers were also asked to comment on how they perceive parents role in their child’s
learning. Anne and Rose stated that they felt inadequately supported in their work by parents.

Specifically, Anne explained that “Parents are constantly working full time. Thus, they are
unable to support their children.” Meanwhile, Rose highlighted that “Parents are uneducated.
Due to workload, they are unable to support their children”. The analysis reveals that parents
are unable to support preschool children in language learning either due to lack of time due to
their busy schedules or unawareness of how to support the children
Theme 3: Available Support to Preschool Teachers when supporting preschool children
language learning
In this section, the analysis indicates the teachers’ perceptions of available government support
and administrators’ support.
The preschool teachers were asked to further explain the type of support they received from the
government. From the analysis, Anna explained, “UNICEF provided wooden boxes and
materials for games and activities”. This teacher indicates that government provided minimal
support to improve the language skills of the learners. Moreoever, the results showed that
although government provided inadequate support in terms of final compensation to preschool
teachers. Specifically, Daisy explained that “We require computer, audio, video equipment, and
proper salary”. The preschool teacher reveals that despite the government should improve their
efforts in providing salaries to preschool teachers
When asked about the support received from administrators, Jean and Nala highlighted that they
received “songbooks, handicraft work, letter cards, and storybooks”. While Rose stated that
administrators provided the training program through the non-governmental organisation World
Vision. However, the preschool teachers also indicated that they did not receive audio and video
resources from administrators and wanted support in obtaining the resources to enable them
improve language skills of children. Specifically, Rose explained “We require audio and video
resources to develop language skills of the children”. Thereby revealing that preschool teachers
obtain some support from administrators

Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.1 Introduction to the Literature Review
According to Sethi et al. (2020), providing learners with a consistently high-quality
education is an exciting aspect that contributes to their success in life. However, there is a
challenge in regards to the identification of effective teaching and learning strategies needed for
quality early childhood education. Manning et al. (2017) suggest that high-quality education for
children is influenced by the qualifications of preschool teachers and the quality of learning
environments that the children are surrounded by in early childhood education and care. In this
context, Ehsan et al. (2019) recommend that there is a need to evaluate the resources and
classroom infrastructure where the learning processes are administered as they influence the
attainment of oral language skills among preschool learners.
According to World Bank (2014), the quality of early childhood education can be
evaluated based on quality of inputs such as physical environment and curriculum, the quality of
pedagogical process for instance teacher and child relationship, the quality of outcomes such as
child adaptability to the school environment, and the monitoring alongside quality assurance
processes for instance management of teaching and learning processes. Further, In essence,
quality of early childhood education can be evaluated by both structural quality and process
quality. In general, structural quality refers indicators that can be regulated at the program level
such as group size, and teachers’ professional characteristics, including education, qualifications,
and training. On the other hand, process quality accounts for the extent to which a teacher is
sensitive, encouraging, and interacts frequently with children in a classroom (Manning et al.
(2017); Jeon et al. (2014)). Thus, this literature review is divided into three main sections:

Thus, This review is divided into three main sections: Firstly, it explains the importance
of children’s oral language skills development. The next section details the factors that influence
oral language skills development, including preschool resources, curriculum, preschool
classroom activities and strategies, and the need for preschool teachers’ qualifications. Finally, it
focuses on effective teachers’ practice in supporting children’s oral language skills development.
2.2 Importance of Children’s Oral Language Skills Development
Oral language skills continue to play a critical role in children’s overall development
throughout their life. Research revealed that oral language proficiency aids personal relations and
maintains social ties on a daily basis (Konza 2016). Konza (2016) claims that preschool teachers
have specialised knowledge from their pre-service training and experience to impact learners’
language skills effectively. The early stages of children’s language development play an essential
role in improving their oral language skills for their lifelong development (Brodin and Renblad
2020). According to Rajapaksha (2016:16), oral language is described as “the ability to listen to
spoken language and respond with understanding”. He further argued that preschool teachers
play essential roles in improving young learners’ language skills; impacts their emotional,
cognitive, social, and language development. Paatsch et al. (2019) claim that language is the
foundation for building literacy in the early years. Further, they reported that oral language is
essential because it facilitates children’s literacy learning and is associated with their later
literacy outcomes. Moreover, Niklas et al. (2016) argue that oral language is important for
children as a practice that allows them to become strong readers and writers in the future.
Therefore, with the acquisition of relevant literacy and comprehension skills from an early age,
children can enhance their skills and literary capabilities in the future as they become adults.
Furthermore, Peterson et al. (2016:12) state that “most children’s language learning occurs

during the first five years of life”. Hence, this suggests that preschool teachers should use
effective strategies to aid in the oral language skills development of the young children they
teach.
2.3 Factors That Influence Oral Language Skills Development
The development of oral language skills in children is affected by various factors that
should to be addressed. According to Reynolds et al. (2017: 1453), addressing these factors
requires “collaborative models of school and family engagement.” In this context, this section
discusses different factors including resources, which constitute both material, non-material, and
technological elements. Similarly, other factors that are evaluated include, preschool curriculum
that is standard-based sequence focused on promoting learners’ engagement in skill learning,
preschool classroom activities and strategies, teaching materials, and preschool teachers’
qualifications alongside professional development.
2.3.1 Resources
Usman (2016:28) contends that resources are “materials and non-material factors that
enable any institutions to attain intended goals.” The materials are physical or tangible resources
“easily observed in any teaching environment and facilitate organisational activities and
processes” (Usman 2016:30). Notably, resources are important in aiding children’s learning and
language skills development because they assist the learning process and contribute to oral
language skills among the young learners. In this context, the resources needed in preschool
activities include material elements such as the external and internal physical resources that help
institutions achieve preschool education goals. These are characterized by infrastructure,
finances and availability of learning resources like books, technology and teachers (Usman
2016). On the other hand, the non-material resources needed for preschool activities are not

tangible for instance, quiet and secure learning environment (Usman 2016). Some examples of
the intangible resources cited by Usman included quiet learning environments that were free
from noise, safe, planned, and where the children can explore and try out many ideas. Moreover,
non-material factors such as motivation, and the attitude of children can enable or constrain the
teachers when supporting oral language skills development (Minghe and Yuan 2013).
Technologies are also among the resources utilised in assisting the results of learning
among preschool children. Üstün-Aksoy and Dimililer (2017) reported that mobile technologies
had become suitable resources for enhancing oral language skills development for preschool
children. Ilter (2015) found that technology use in language learning at an early age is rising due
to creating a real and enjoyable learning atmosphere. However, technology, including computers
and the internet, can influence language development if used correctly. Ilter (2015:311) further
revealed that technology enables children to “improve their language and cultural awareness in
different social and cultural contexts”. Thus, technology can help preschool children enhance
language skills, and as explained by Ihmeideh and Alkhawaldeh (2017: 144), technology and
digital media contribute to the cultural and intellectual education of children. Notably, stranded
preschools have a challenge of providing sufficient resources needed by pre-schoolers and
teachers. Ahmad, Saffardin, and Teoh (2020) explain that insufficient resources lead to burnout
among preschool teachers, and as a result, their engagement with the learners reduces.
Malaysian public schools are an example of preschools that have insufficient resources. Due to
this, most parents opt to register their children to private schools (Mustafa, Nor, and Azman,
2013).

In Sri Lanka, Pathirana (2017) revealed that the government has not focused on fostering
a conducive environment for preschool children due to a lack of clear standards and resources.
Concurring to this sentiment, Mukunthan (2020) highlighted that insufficient resources are found
in preschools in Sri Lanka, Moreover, the author posited that as far as Sri Lanka is concerned,
most preschools are operating without even basic facilities. There are many preschools all over
Sri Lanka that run simply in one room without any teaching aids. In support of this argument,
World Bank 2014 presented that most of the early childhood education centres in Sri Lanka have
children from age 2 to 7 in the same classroom, and this may not be optimal for learning. As a
result, young learners in preschools in Sri Lanka face many challenges in developing their
language skills (Mukunthan, 2020).
2.3.2 Curriculum
In regard to a study conducted in the United States by Wilcox et al. (2020: 42), it was
determined that the high-quality standard curriculum called Teaching Early Literacy and
Language (TELL) was essential in supporting the acquisition of language and early literacy skills
among children. According to Wilcox et al. (2020), Teaching Early Literacy and Language
(TELL) is a top level curriculum that was developed for children who have developmental
speech disabilities. Overall, the curriculum also served as a foundation for subsequent success in
reading fluency as well as comprehension (Wilcox et al., 2020).
In the context of Sri Lanka, Pathirana (2017) reported that the absence of a standard curriculum
in preschool education in Sri Lanka results into the non-provision of clear pedagogical guidelines
that are essential in promoting developmentally-appropriate practices. In support of this
presentation, Mukunthan (2020) emphasised that there is no common standard curriculum in the

preschools in Sri Lanka. This explains why each preschool teacher teaches their preferred subject
in the preschools. Furthermore, in a study by Engdahl and Sundin (2018:5), they highlighted that
early childhood education was neglected in Sri Lanka, based on the lack of a standard curriculum
for preschoolers. Notably, in comparison to other countries such as United States and the UK,
which have integrated standard preschool curricula, it is evident that a standard curriculum helps
in improving oral language skills of children. For instance, according to Haley et al. (2017: 78)
based on their study on UK nursery schools, a standard preschool curriculum that is
characterized by a structured oral language intervention programme is beneficial in improving
the oral language skills of children. Similarly, in accordance with the study conducted by
Nicolopoulou et al. (2015) in preschool classrooms in six centres located in the United States, it
was established that the standard curriculum characterized by storytelling and story-acting
practice (STSA) helps in promoting various school readiness skills including oral and emergent
literacy (p. 160). Concurrently, Weiland et al. (2018) acknowledges that some states in the U.S.
such as Massachusetts have implemented a curriculum model and instructional quality within
preschool programs with the purpose of improving oral language skills of children. In congruent
with this presentation, Overall, based on these studies, it is evident that a standard preschool
curriculum is effective for the improvement of oral language as well as early literacy skills of
young children.
Weiland et al. (2018:2) further reported that a domain-specific curriculum, which is “a
curriculum that aims to provide intensive exposure to a given content area”, is beneficial for
improving teachers’ knowledge in supporting oral language skills and learning processes in the
classroom. For instance, language skills were positively influenced by various literacy activities
within the curriculum, such as read-aloud group activities where children read different books to

enhance oral language skills and comprehension skills (Weiland et al. 2018). Odom et al. (2019)
also reported that the Children’s School Success (CSS) curriculum, which was based on
integrating literacy content for developmentally vulnerable children, helped them improve their
oral language skills. For instance, through the curriculum, the children learned vocabulary, letter
knowledge, and social problem-solving (Odom et al., 2019).
Kazu and Is (2018) conducted a study comprised of 165 primary school tutors and 136
preschool educators in Turkey to determine the effectiveness of early childhood curricula. The
researchers found that a well-organised curriculum specifies how the lesson is taught, assessed,
and the activity students engaged in during the lesson which enabled the teacher to reach the
target of children’s development (Kazu and Is 2018). This signifies that a well-organised
curriculum should be purposefully designed to enable an effective learning process. As noted by
Sumsion and Grieshaber (2012: 230), in Australia, Belonging, Being and Becoming: The Early
Years Learning Framework for Australia is a curriculum designed by the Department of
Education for children aged 0 to 5 years. This curriculum was developed towards realizing the
Council of Australian Government’s vision that is characterized by creating a better future for
children. This is an example of a well-organised curriculum as it identifies the various learning
and development outcomes for children in accordance with the Australian government. Overall,
as posited by Sumsion and Grieshaber (2012: 231), “the optimism is that the curriculum
interventions provide a means of creating better childhoods for young children in the present,
which in turn, lead to better individual and collective futures.”

2.3.3 Preschool classroom strategies
According to Mousena and Sidiropoulou (2018), preschool educators engage in
developing various strategies aimed at developing oral language skills among children. These
approaches include but not limited to circle time discussions, teacher-learner routine interactions,
reading and narration of stories, description of pictures alongside development of topics.
Moreover, Paatsch et al. (2019:73) studied patterns of teacher talk to determine if the
“talk behaviours [of teachers] facilitate children’s language use” and how their talk can support
language skills development. They conducted a study with preschool and primary teachers in
Australia. They found that the teachers’ talk directly influenced language skills development and
learning outcomes among preschool children. The dialogue is the effective teacher talk, which
aids in the engagement of the young leaners in the classroom activities and builds their language
skills.
Furthermore, classroom play activities contribute to enhancing oral language skills
development in young children. Bakhsh (2016) illustrates that play helps students expand their
vocabulary and literacy. In sharing a similar view with Bakhsh (2016) Sakellariou and Maria
(2020) espouse the importance of children’s play activities in improving children’s literacy and
language skills. Moreover, in a study conducted by Amorim et al. (2020) concerning the use of
mobile-based educational programs, it was established that video games help in improving the
phonological awareness and early reading and writing among pre-schoolers. These results are
consistent with the study of Chambers et al. (2016), which determined that video games help in

improving phonological awareness of children as well as their development in reading and
writing.
Notably, another strategy that strengthens the development of oral language skills in
children involves reading activities. For instance, Terrell and Watson (2018: 152) mention that
shared book reading, in which the educator and the child share a book experience together helps
in providing a natural environment for literacy exposure. Concurring with this assertion, Milburn
et al. (2014: 110) maintained that shared book reading promotes child language development in
vocabulary, expressive language, and oral narrative skills as well as story comprehension. In
addition to this, Paatsch and Nolan (2020) have shown that “rich dialogue during shared book
reading enhances children’s oral linguistic skills, including sematic and syntactic structures.”
Furthermore, Hagen (2018) noted that children engage in reading books and language games in
the classroom, and they are regularly trained on vocabulary and language skills; thereby,
structuring such activities facilitates language stimulation. Hagen suggests that classroom
activities, such as “reading storybooks and vocabulary training, are among the classroom
activities that correlate with higher verbal outcomes for preschool children” Hagen (2018:652).
Storytelling is another strategy for improving oral language skills among preschoolers. In this
context, Wright and Dunsmuir (2019:5) acknowledge that storytelling helps in developing the
oral language skills of young children in terms of vocabulary and storytelling abilities. In
concurrence with this assertion, Hidayati (2019:70) argued that storytelling is a learning package
that is effective in teaching language skills among young children.

Similarly, when considering classroom strategies, Mourão (2018:325) revealed the
effectiveness of peer interaction in improving the language skills of children. According to the
author, when pre-schoolers interact by replicating teacher-led activities, inventing games and
taking on the role of teacher and pupil, their oral language skills improve (Mourão, 2018).
Rajapaksha (2016:22) found that a socio-dramatic play intervention, which is a play that
involves the adoption of social roles by two or more children, is effective in enhancing oral
language skills of young learners. According to Rajapaksha (2016), the play creates a language
rich environment and offers various opportunities towards the development of oral language
skills. It is a beneficial intervention especially among children who rarely communicate during
classroom activities (Rajapaksha, 2016).
Mourão (2018) further argued that peer interaction is an effective strategy in the learning
context since it enhances language usage among children in the early years. The author suggests
that peer interaction is encouraged to provide children with skills and further improve their oral
language. According to Mourão (2018), children in the preoperational phase, which ranges from
age two to seven years, engage in peer interaction that enhances their language skills through
engagement in various activities such as playing games and reading books. Mourão (2018)
stipulates that the preschool years are significant in children’s language skills development as
most children acquire skills during this period through social interaction. In this way preschool
teachers help to improve children’s social interaction through the classroom activities.
Mukundan (2021) also asserts that during the preschool years, children’s language skills increase

through interaction. Interaction with preschool teachers allows young children to improve their
listening and speaking skills.
2.3.4 The need for qualifications among preschool teachers
According to Egert et al. (2018), preschool teachers need qualifications and professional
skills as they impact classroom practices when supporting children’s learning and oral language
skills improvement. The argument is supported by numerous studies which identify similar
findings. For instance, based on the study conducted by Manning et al. (2017), it was established
that there is a significant positive correlation between the qualifications of a teacher and the
quality of early childhood learning. Preschool teachers’ skills are a major determinant that has an
impact on the development of young children. Kim and Park (2018) investigated the impacts of
preschool teachers’ competency and qualification on the development of young children
highlighting the close relationship between the quality of teaching and positive development of
young children. A recent study conducted by Wang et al. (2020: 355) revealed that among
preschool children aged 49-65 months in China, the qualifications of teachers in terms of
educational level, experience, training and specialisation in early childhood education were
significantly associated with the developmental outcomes of the preschool children. Therefore,
educational qualifications are essential aspects for preschool teachers.
Trained preschool teachers are considered important for the success of young children’s
oral language skills development (Wang et al. 2020). A plausible argument is that both formal
training, which is a training done in a systematic manner and on-the-job training, which is
training conducted in the working environment helps preschool-teachers understand diversity of
children (Bryant 2018). Furthermore, Melhuish et al. (2016) also report that the qualifications
and skills of early childhood teachers influenced the experiences and learning outcomes of

children. As such, these findings emphasise the need for in-service training for preschool
teachers as well as the need to consider initial qualifications of educators. This is because the
quality of most young children’s experiences and the opportunities they gain in ECEC rely on
the teachers’ skills, dispositions, and understandings (Melhuish et al.,2016).
Unfortunately, it has been reported that in some countries early childhood teacher
qualifications and training is minimal. A study encompassing the eastern, northern and central
regions of China reported limited skills among preschool teachers (Manning et al. 2017).
Similarly, in Sri Lanka, early childhood service providers were identified as “having limited or
no skills, inadequate training, and with no educational qualifications” (Pathirana 2017:38).
Various studies on in-service training and qualifications for preschool teachers reveal that
qualifications vary in different countries due to the differences in teacher requirements. For
instance, in a study conducted by Gong and Wang (2017), which performed a comparative
analysis of pre-service education system for preschool educators in China and the United States,
it was established that majority of Chinese preschool teachers are required to have only
secondary school education certificates. However, most of American preschool teachers are
required to have a bachelor’s degree as well as associate degree programs.
Moreover, in comparing the qualifications of preschool teachers in Australia, Canada,
and Sri Lanka, it can be argued that differences exist in regard to the countries. For example, in
Australia, preschool teachers are required to have a Bachelor’s degree level or equivalent early
childhood teaching certificate. (ACECQA 2020:2). Similarly, in Canada, Varmuza et al. (2019)
reported that preschool teachers had to complete two - four-year degrees to be qualified
childhood teachers. Compared to educational qualifications and training for preschool teachers in

Australia and Canada, teachers in Sri Lanka have low qualifications and training. Pathirana
(2017) highlighted that there is need for developing a specific regulatory framework that clarifies
the requirements of ECCD.
In the context of Sri Lanka, Mukunthan (2020) articulated that the teachers who teach in
the preschools in Sri lanka do not have the basic standards qualification to teach the young
learners. Also, the author expounded that the preschool teachers lack focus on the development
of preschool children's language development skills and social psychological skills in preschool
activities (Mukunthan, 2020). Mukunthan (2020) further articulated that Preschool teachers
should have academic qualifications however; the educational qualifications and professionalism
of teachers in most Sri Lankan pre-schools are very low. According to the author, the general
certificate education ordinary level (O/L) is the basic qualification for preschool teachers in Sri
Lanka. Moreover, training of preschool teachers is not provided from time to time particularly,
In-service training for preschool teachers is generally not conducted in Sri Lanka (Mukunthan,
2020). In support of these sentiments, World Bank (2014) points out that less than half of all the
preschool teachers in Sri Lanka meet the basic requirements needed in qualifying as ECE
professionals according to national guidelines. Furthermore, World Bank (2014) elaborate that
only 43% of preschool teachers in Sri Lanka exhibit A-level qualifications, despite the fact that
well-qualified early childhood educators are needed to provide high-quality education.
2.4 Effective Teachers’ Practice for Supporting Children’s Oral Language Skills Development
This section offers a review of the research literature relating to the effective practices of
teachers that support the oral language skills of preschool children. Peterson et al. (2016)
illustrate that for many children, the learning of language occurs during the first five years of life.

However, Aksoy (2020) highlights the fact that children’s behaviours during this age group
present many challenges for preschool teachers such as a lack of cooperation in the classroom
activities, interrupting each other, and failing to follow the classroom. Aygün et al. (2014) also
highlighted that these challenging behaviours obstruct classroom management and decrease the
efficiency of the oral language learning process. In addition, some preschool children are
affected by oral language impairments, which impedes comprehension and communication that
are vital for oral language learning (Conti-Ramsden et al. 2013). It is crucial for preschool
teachers to identify the challenges experienced while teaching oral language in the classroom.
Therefore, according to Peterson et al. (2016), preschool teachers are required to have knowledge
regarding how children develop their expressive, receptive, semantic and syntactic skills.
However, untrained preschool teachers do not have the necessary knowledge to support the
language skills development of the young learners (Peterson et al. 2016). Thus, there is a need
for more pre-service and inservice training programs to be provided to preschool teachers in
improving language skills among preschool children (Gong and Wang, 2017).
Naturalistic language practices of preschool teachers such as communication intervention
can also enhance oral language skills of children. For instance, in a study conducted by Kaiser et
al. (2021), it was determined that early intervention communication is capable of improving the
oral language skills of children. Communication among teachers and children in the learning
environment is essential (Gong and Wang, 2017). In this context, based on the results of Gong
and Wang (2017) it can be argued that that effective communication is one of the naturalistic
language practices that promote oral learning skills. Preschool teachers can support preschoolers
to develop literacy skills by engaging in children’s conversations and encouraging discussions on
topics of interest (Mousena and Sidiropoulou, 2018). Paatsch et al. (2019) supported these views

and explained that teacher talk patterns supported children in language skills development.
Moreover, the authors argued that teacher-child patterns and interaction through dialogue had
provided many children with platforms for talking and learning language skills.
A similar study conducted by Law et al. (2019) revealed that teacher talk is likely to
significantly impact children’s learning skills. In their study, Law et al. (2019:7) reported that
“learning language required opportunities for learning and interactions where teachers employed
communication supporting classroom observation tool (CSCOT)” in their work. Thus, teacher’s
talk is a critical teaching practice that enhances oral language skills in the learning environment
of young learners. Furthermore, there is a need for preschool teachers to support the young
learners’ communication skills by evaluating and correcting their mistakes as they learn skills
slowly and over a period of time (Konza 2016). For instance, in the study conducted by Hagen
(2018), it was determined that classroom language activities such as informal language
communication enhanced children’s language comprehension. As such, preschool teachers
should have the knowledge and skills to support all children’s oral language skills development.
This view is supported by Whorrall and Cabell (2016: 335), who claim that “preschool teachers
aiming to support the oral language skills can provide children with purposeful conversations
that include sophisticated vocabulary, open-ended questions, and use of cognitively challenging
topics.”
2.5 Summary
Overall, the chapter reviewed literature related to the importance of oral language for
children and the various factors that affected oral language skills development in preschools. The
review showed that oral language skills were important for preschool children’s learning and
social interaction, acquisition of such skills was affected by the availability of resources,

curriculum, and teaching aids for the teachers in preschools and the professional development as
well as qualifications of the preschool teachers. Moreover, the chapter presented the strategies
needed in improving oral language skills within preschool classrooms including, classroom
playing activities, reading activities, storytelling, peer interaction, and socio-dramatic plays.

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