Concepts of Self-Efficacy and Self-Handicapping in Psychology

This assignment delves into several key concepts in psychology. It begins by contrasting self-descriptions of American and Japanese college students, highlighting cultural differences. It then defines self-handicapping and its role in protecting self-esteem. The assignment explains the dialectical synthesis of nature and nurture, and discusses Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory. It further differentiates between problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies, and explores evolutionary psychologists' views on gender differences. Bandura's concept of self-efficacy and its relation to self-determination theory is examined, along with the hopelessness model of depression. It also addresses self-regulation, locus of control, and ways to ensure equal opportunities for men and women. Finally, it explores challenges and unique aspects of same-sex relationships, offering a comprehensive overview of these psychological principles.

Running head: CONCEPTS OF SELF-EFFICACY AND SELF-HANDICAPPING
Concepts of Self-efficacy and Self-handicapping
Name of the University
Name of the Student
Author note

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CONCEPTS OF SELF-EFFICACY AND SELF-HANDICAPPING
Answer 1: Self-descriptions found in American college students and Japanese college
students
According to Gelfand, Chiu, and Hong, the majority of American college students tend to
provide self-descriptions based on personality traits. In contrast to that, Japanese college students
are more inclined towards describing themselves in terms of group membership and social roles.
In a study conducted in the late 20th century, around 58% American students considered
personality traits to be amongst the top-five self-descriptors whereas only 18.6% Japanese
college students chose the personal self as the parameter for self-description.
This contrasting behavior is largely due to the society both American and Japanese
college students live in.
Answer 2: Concept of Self-handicapping
Many authors have defined self-handicapping in their own ways. However, the term
generally means the attitude of individuals towards the certainty of the outcomes of their tasks. It
refers to the instantiation of failures by individuals who are uncertain about the results of their
ability in any task.
Higgins, Snyder and Berglas, have illustrated it with an example of a drunkard man who
lives a lavish life. He externalizes his failure of being a socially active person to his lavish
upbringing, having no need to carry out responsibilities.
The aim of self-handicapping, especially amongst students is to protect their self-esteem
by externalizing the reason for their failure (Akça 288).

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Answer 3: “Dialectical” synthesis of nature and nurture
The dialectic involves three elements, the thesis, the antithesis and the synthesis. Thesis is the
generation of an idea or a concept, antithesis is the contradicting argument opposing the thesis
and synthesis is the understanding of thesis and antithesis. It can be demonstrated with an
example where students in a class are asked to debate on the importance of ‘nature’ that is
biological characteristics and ’nurture’ that is upbringing (Smith and Korydon). While debating
on both issues, students reach a point where they discover that both nature and nurture influence
human psychology.
The ‘nature’ is the thesis and ‘nurture’ is the antithesis. When these two extremes are
coalesced, it forms the dialectical synthesis of nature and nurture.
Answer 4: Three Neurological systems defined by reinforcement sensitive theory
J.A. Gray was the first to devise the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) in the year
1970 where he talked about the three neurological systems that emphasize personal differences
in individuality and psychology.
First is the behavioral approach system (BAS) where behaviors anticipated to seek
rewards are motivated. Activation of this system results in the desiring for exhilaration,
demonstration of extraordinary perseverance and elation when rewarded.
Second is the fight-flight system (FFS) where behaviors expected to avoid fear, panic and
anxiety are motivated.
Third and final one is the behavioral inhibition system (BIS) that involves resolution of
conflicts between challenging goals.

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Answer 5: Differences between problem-focused and emotion-focused coping
There are many differences between problem-focused and emotion-focused coping.
However, the one basic difference may be outlined here.
When a person copes with a certain situation causing stress through engagement in or
active planning to overcome the stress situation, he uses the problem-focused coping strategy.
Taking help from mentors, managing time to tackle situations are included in problem-focused
coping.
On the other hand, emotion-focused coping involves a person’s engagement in activities
like meditation to cope with a stressful situation. Other ways of emotion-focused coping also
includes distraction, eating comfort foods, drinking alcohol and so on.
Answer 6: Evolutionary psychologists on difference between men and women
Evolutionary psychologists believe that the basic difference between men and women arouse
from their different reproductive status and abilities. Women, they say, possess traits that allow
them to protect their offspring because they are responsible for its birth. According to the
theorists, women in three past were exceedingly good in perceiving and hence evolved traits
softer to that of men. On the other hand, men are less interested in reproduction are less selective
about their mates. In addition, they were exceptional hunters with their superior throwing skills
and thus were considered physically superior to women.
Answer 7: Bandura’s concept of self-efficacy in relation to self-determination theory
Self-efficacy, in simple terms, is the belief of a person that he or she can influence a
situation or make a difference. Albert Bandura related self-efficacy to motivation, which is a

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CONCEPTS OF SELF-EFFICACY AND SELF-HANDICAPPING
psychological activity. When one feels motivated that his or her actions can change the outcome
of a situation, he or she is said to be self-efficacious.
Self-efficacy has inherent connection with the self-determination theory. Proposed by
Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan, the theory encourages human motivation. The motivation
that one’s choices and actions can influence the results of a particular situation is the basic
principle that underlies this theory (Deci and Ryan 95).
Answer 8: The hopelessness model of depression
According to the hopelessness theory of depression, an individual who attributes any
negative situation as his or her own fault is at a bigger risk of being depressed. To elaborate it
further, those who point a pessimistic event to inner, constant, and inclusive causes were at
bigger probability of developing depression. A person who had a heated argument with an
acquaintance attributes it to his own weaknesses such as poor communication skills (inner) that
is not likely to change (constant) and that is more likely to affect future communications with
others as well (inclusive), is an example of this theory.
Answer 9: Problem of self-regulation and its intervention
One has to focus on the three vital psychological needs, as per the self-determination
theory- autonomy, competence and relatedness.
In order to achieve desired results in studies, one has to take control of his or her own
behavior. To give an example, while studying in-group, one can develop the skills to motivate
other peers that the specific subject is fruitful and interesting.

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Secondly, having the belief that one has the capability to direct the result of an activity
can largely help in developing good study habits.
Lastly, connecting with peers and exchanging ideas would greatly benefit the outcomes
of the activity, group study in this case.
Answer 10: Internal and external locus of control
Yes, it is better to have an internal locus of control than possessing an external locus.
Internal locus of control is the idea that an individual feels that he or she can control the events
or situation. External locus refers to the idea that a person always blames external factors for any
negative situation. Thus, it is better to have control over things and situations rather than blaming
others.
However, internal locus can be damaging to one’s own well being as it has a may lead to
depression.
It is an established fact that too much control over anything is negative. There must be a
balance in both internal and external locus of control.
According to learned helplessness, repeated contact to uncontrollable and adverse situation leads
to the belief that the situation is inescapable even though that might not be the case. This leads to
a deteriorated mental health that is depression (Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov).
Answer 11: Evaluating the ways that ensures equal opportunity for men and women
Apart from the biological differences, men and women have visible psychological
differences that evolved with time and as per situation.

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It is thus imperative to state that although, the perception of men and the society overall
towards women has changed, still there are areas where women must be given a chance to
display their skills and be acknowledged equally. One area where the change can be brought is
the difference in wage of both. Men are paid higher for the same work as done by women. This
must be changed.
Answer 12: Challenges and unique aspects of same-sex relationships
Challenges –The primary challenge faced by same-sex couples is the unacceptable
attitude of the society that includes family and peers as well (Bigner and Wetchler). Another
challenge is the openness of couples in same-sex relationships. It may happen that one couple
might openly accept their relationship status and preferences whereas the other might be
reluctant to do so. This leads to internal disturbances that are unlike heterosexual couples.
Uniqueness – Results of numerous studies on same-sex relationships have shown that
these relationships have certain unique aspects that heterosexual couples can learn. It has been
found that same-sex couples are more affectionate and humorous when it comes to solving an
argument (Gottman 132). The power of control amongst gay and lesbian couples is more
balanced than that of heterosexuals.

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References:
Akça, Figen. "An investigation into the self-handicapping behaviors of undergraduates in terms
of academic procrastination, the locus of control and academic success." Journal of Education
and Learning 1.2 (2012): 288.
Bigner, Jerry, and Joseph L. Wetchler. Relationship therapy with same-sex couples. Routledge,
2014.
Deci, Edward L., and Richard M. Ryan. "Motivation, personality, and development within
embedded social contexts: An overview of self-determination theory." The Oxford handbook of
human motivation (2012): 85-107.
Gelfand, Michele J., Chi-yue Chiu, and Ying-yi Hong, eds. Handbook of advances in culture and
psychology. Vol. 5. Oxford University Press, 2015.
Gottman, John Mordechai. "Gottman couple therapy." Clinical handbook of couple
therapy (2015): 129-157.
Higgins, Raymond L., Charles Richard Snyder, and Steven Berglas. Self-handicapping: The
paradox that isn’t. Springer Science & Business Media, 2013.
Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. 2017, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4689589/
Smith, Korydon, ed. Introducing architectural theory: debating a discipline. Routledge, 2013.