University Public Administration: Research Methods and Concepts

This report provides an overview of key concepts in public administration research. It begins by defining and explaining various research methodologies, including control groups, deductive reasoning, and experimental designs. The report then explores philosophical approaches such as positivism and post-positivism, and their implications for research. A significant portion of the report is dedicated to research ethics, emphasizing the importance of ethical considerations in public administration studies. The report also covers data-related topics, including secondary data, meta-analysis, and categorical variables. Finally, the report concludes with a discussion on research hypotheses, their role in guiding research, and their relationship to theories and research questions. The report aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the core elements of public administration research, providing a solid foundation for students in the field.

Running Head: PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Public Administration
Name of the Student
Name of the University
Author Note

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Control Group – In the experimental designs, a control group is a type of untreated group
that is just the opposite of the experimental group. It is a type of scientific experiment separated
from the remnants of the entire experiment. It is where the independent variable is tested but
cannot eave impact on the results. It is helpful for ruling out the alternative explanations of the
results of experiment (Brinkmann, 2014). The control groups can be divided into two other
groups: positive and negative. The positive control groups are those kind of groups where the
conditions of the experiments can guarantee positive results. On the other hand, the negative
groups are the groups which the negative outcomes are destined to be caused (Norton & Herek,
2013). However, the control groups are not necessary for all of the scientific experiments but
these are the most useful when the experimental conditions are difficult to isolate. In public
administrative research, experiments are not always conducted on participants and it also
happens in many quasi- experimental studies and other experimental studies. It is often done on
certain characteristics of the participants including the adolescence, gender, lower socioeconomic
status or other features including the private school participation.
Deductive Reasoning - Deductive reasoning is nothing but the process of reasoning from
one or more premises in order to reach a logically sure concept. Like the conditionals, the
deductive reasoning goes in the same way and connects the premises with the conclusions. When
it is found that all the premises are true, the terms become clear and when the principles of
deductive logic are followed, the conclusion reaches the reality (Acharya et al., 2013). This kind
of reasoning is contrasted with the inductive reasoning. The deductive reasoning differs from that
of the abductive reasoning in terms of direction of the reasoning which is relative to the
conditionals. In the public administrative research, the hypothesis for the deductive research is
derived from the already existing theory and the world is explored on the basis of that data. In

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research, the deductive reasoning focuses more on the prediction changes after validating the
theories and elaborates the ‘mean’ behavior. It tests the assumptions and also the hypotheses and
establishes the more likely tomorrow (Yanow & Schwartz-Shea, 2015). The advantages of
deductive reasoning are many. It creates the possibility to elaborate the casual relationships
between the variables and the concepts. There is also a possibility to evaluate the concepts
quantitatively. It also initiates the possibility for the research findings t be generalized to a
greater extent.
Positivism – It is a mythical approach to the public administrations which disagrees with the
concept of free will and moral responsibilities. It further seeks to euthanize all the non-believers
of this concept (Schwartz-Shea & Yanow, 2013). According to the philosophers, positivism
sticks to the view that only the factual knowledge which is achieved through the observations of
the senses are trustworthy, others are not. In the public administrative research, the researcher is
limited to the collection of data and interpretation of the data. The research findings are most off
the times observable as well as quantifiable. The theory of positivism depends on those
quantifiable observations that leads to statistical examination (Faden et al.,2013). It has further
been found that positivism stems from the human experiences and has an atomistic perception of
the world which is discrete. The researcher remains out of the study and there are no existing
human interests in the study. The positivist studies generally adopt the deductive approach
instead of the inductive approach. Positivism stresses on the fact that the researcher needs to
focus on only the facts rather than focusing on meanings as phenomenology does. This is a type
of research philosophy concentrates that the research is aimed at explanation and prediction.
Research Ethics- The research ethics are a set of principles governs the way a researcher
interacts with human or other creatures. It also handles the usage of any data for the research

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purpose and protects the rights, dignity and safety of the participants of the research. The set of
principles ensures that the research is conducted ethically. The research ethics committees are
there to monitor and review that research has been conducted following the principles. The
follow up of the research ethics reduces the potential to harm or disrespect the participants
(Harriss, MacSween & Atkinson, 2017). The ethics committees ensure whether the research is
justified and can add further knowledge to the existing base. It determines whether it is sufficient
or not and at the same time examines whether the researchers are qualified enough to accomplish
the roles thy are expected to. There is an increased number of interests in the areas related to the
ethics in the public administration and sovereign good. There are also few ethical philosophical
dilemmas which are associated with the concepts of ethics. Research ethics are essential in the
public administrative research because it is important for conducting good business founded on
the needs of a particular state, country or town. The ethics pave the way for the accountability
between the administration and public. It strengthens the integrity, trust and relationship between
the public and the administrative researcher group.
Secondary Data - It is a type of data that has been previously gathered and can be used by
the researchers. The concept of secondary data is in contrast with the primary data which is a
type of data that has been collected from the source. The secondary is mostly used to heighten
the sampling size of the research study. The secondary data is highly associated with speed,
efficiency and authentication. It facilitates big projects where many research groups collect the
necessary data. The main researcher is supported by the division of labour and can gather more
resources at less time. Among the common sources of secondary data collection, the government
and public service departments, internet sources and the libraries are the most trustworthy.
Nowadays, social media is becoming a heavily favored source of collecting data from because

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here are millions of opinions from the users on services or products. The secondary data is
typically connected with the quantitative database. The analysis focuses on the visual and verbal
materials which are created for other purposes. It is a legitimate path for the qualitative
researcher. A good document should not be neglected as it can enrich the resources to be used in
future.
Pre-experimental Designs- The pre-experimental designs are the simplest type of research
design. In the pre-experimental design, a particular group or multiple groups are observed after a
kind of treatment assumed to bring changes. There are three types of pre-experimental designs
including the one shot case study design, one –group pretest –posttest design and static –group
comparison. In the one –shot case study design, a single group is observed at a single point of
time. In the one –group pretest –posttest design, a single case is observed but at two points of
time. In the static –group comparison, a group is compared to another group under some kind of
treatment. There are so many advantages of the pre-experimental designs. It is a type of
exploratory approach which can become cost –effective in its own way and helps to determine
whether an explanation is worthy of investigation in future. However, in public administrative
research, it becomes difficult to assess the validity of the results with the pre –experimental
designs. It is because this type of research design does not usually include comparison groups
and without comparison, it is complicated to deduce the significance of a change in a particular
case.
Post Positivism - It is also called the post –empiricism which is a meta-theoretical stance
which critiques and corrects positivism. The positivists following positivism elaborates the
interdependence between the object or the researched person and the researcher. The theory of
post –positivism accepts that background, theories and values of the researcher can leave impact

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on the person or object that is observed. The positivist theory elaborates in the quantitative
methods but the post –positivist theory considers both the qualitative and quantitative methods to
be valid. In the public administrative theory, it is used as an abstract theory that is based on the
knowledge philosophy. Hence, all the research results tend to be erroneous and never be proved
as a final sense. Thus, it has less to do with the aspects of research design that includes both the
collection and analysis of data. Few of the research scholars suggest that in the post –positivist
research methodology more than one methods can be used to collect data. It is the triangulation
or the mixture of quantitative and qualitative methods.
Meta –Analysis - The meta-analysis is a type of statistical procedure that combines the data
from various studies. The meta –analysis method is useful when the effect of a particular
treatment continues from one study to another. The meta –analysis recognizes this common
effect and also identifies the reasons for variation when the effect varies from one study to
another. In the public administrative research, important decisions cannot be based on a single
study because it is likely that the results will vary from study to study. It accelerates the need for
a mechanism to analyze the data across the studies. The meta –analysis uses objective formulas
that can be used anywhere with a multiple number of studies. There are instances of publishers
who encourage the researchers to submit a systematic review along with the meta-analysis which
summarizes evidence according to a specific question. It also helps in the planning for new
studies. It can easily identify which question can easily be answered and which questions need to
be answered. It further recognizes which population measures can bring significant results and
which will prove to be more powerful.
Categorical Variables- The categorical variable is a significant part of categorical data. The
categorical variable can take two values termed as the binary variable. The binary variable is also

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known as dichotomous variable especially un the special case of Bernoulli variable. The
categorical variable having more than two values are called polytomous variables. The
categorical variables are sometimes taken for polytomous until they are specified properly. The
categorical variables are opposed to the continuous variable and takes the value of a series of
categories. It takes the value along with a continuum and the simplest example of categorical
variables is the binary variables. It has greater importance in the public administrative research.
Research Hypothesis- A research hypothesis is a clear and specific statement or proposition
regarding the possible results of a scientific research study that is based on a particular asset of
the population. For example, the relationship between the variables or the assumed differences
between various groups. While planning a scientific quantitative research, the research
hypothesis is the most essential step. One of the advantages of presenting a research hypothesis
is that, it asks the researcher to think about the topic completely and with full attention. In the
public administrative research, it is considered as a predictive statement and can be examined by
specific scientific ways. It us better to form a hypothesis when a theory is being tested. The
hypothesis is closely related to the research question. A theory is always related to the research
hypothesis and research question. It is a rather a tentative reply to the problem identified in the
research. In order to develop the research hypothesis, the researcher will have to identify the
characters, variables or descriptor of a sampling body that can impact other characters,
descriptors or variables. A research hypothesis can be called an ideal hypothesis when it states
about the relationships between various variables and carries clear evidence of testing those
before stated relationships. It is usual that the hypothesis variables contain two or more variables
Continuous variables- A variable is something that has a continuous changing values and
characteristics. This value can change from one example to the next. Hence, the continuous

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variable is a type of variable that has an endless number of possible values. It can also be said
that any value is suitable for the variable. It is just the opposite of the categorical variable which
is limited to only taking a few number of values. In the public administrative research, it is a
major part of the research to examine the variables. Some of the examples of continuous
variable are height of a baby, income of an employee, temperature of a day and obviously age.
In research it is also known as a quantitative variable or the metric variable and in practical
research, the integer variables are considered as continuous. In order to get deeper insight into
the concept of continuous variables, examples can be provided. When a fire department
announces that all the fire fighters must be of the weight between 150-250 pounds. It means that
the weight will vary between the 150 ponds and the 250 pounds and can be anything between
those.
Stratified Random Sampling - The stratified random sampling is a way of sampling that
engages the population division into comparatively smaller groups that is known as strata. In
stratification, the strata are based on the shared attributes and characteristics of the members.
Another name of the stratified random sampling is the proportional random sampling. In the
public administrative research, it is used while running the analysis or the research on a group of
people with same characteristics. In is likely that a researcher might discover that a population
size is extra-large to conduct the research on. In order to achieve the same objectives, the
researcher may take help of an affordable approach after selecting a smaller group from the
population. This small group is known as the sample size that represents the big picture. There
are so many ways by which the sample may be chosen out of the population. The stratified
random sampling method is one of those various methods. The advantages of this method is it
captures the key characteristics from the sample size. These characteristics chosen from the

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sample size is proportionate to the overall population. The chances of error are reduced by
applying this sampling method.
Interpretive Theory- The interpretive theory is a type of general theory that consists of the
symbolic interactionism, ethnomethodology, social reality, phenomenological sociology and also
labelling. The interpretive theory is usually contrasted with the other structural theories. The
other structural theories ask the eliminate the subjectivity of the researcher and actor to presume
that all kinds of human behavior can be determined by the ups and downs of the structural forces.
On the other hand, the interpretive theory assumes that the human behavior is independent and
associated with the interpretations of the atmosphere. The structural theory on one hand
concentrates on the situation while the interpretive theory emphasizes on the actor’s
interpretation of the situation in which she/he acts. It further seeks inter –subjective and
reciprocal understanding of the subject. In the public administrative research, the interpretive
research is often synonymously referred as qualitative research (Hamari, Koivisto & Sarsa,
2014). Although the two concepts are different in their own ways, these are treated as same
sometimes. It is the research paradigm which is founded on the assumptions of social reality.
The interpretive researchers interpret the realty by the help of making sense instead of the
hypothesis testing process. Although the interpretive research methods depend on the qualitative
data up to greater extents, the quantitative data is considered as providing more precision and in-
depth understanding of the interests than the qualitative data does.
Instrument Error – The instrument error is the combined accuracy of measuring instrument
or the gap between the actual value and the value that is displayed in the instrument. It is usually
based on some standards that are accurate as compared to others. It is important for the public
administrative research because a simple error can change the entire face of the research and

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provide wrong outcomes. The wrong outcomes are supposed to be taken as right outcomes and
can lead to deviated assumptions. It is the duty of the researcher or the operator of the instrument
to take proper care of the instrument so that the errors can be reduced. There are also some
instances where the errors seem to be constant by nature due to some unpredicted causes.
However, most of the times, it occurs due to the negligence of the operator. Among the various
types of instrument errors, the gross errors, measurement errors and blunders are the most
common. The systematic errors are also closely connected with the various types of errors. The
systematic errors are of four types such as the instrumental errors, observational errors,
theoretical errors and environmental errors.
Attitude Scale- The term scaling is used to measure the attitude of people objectively. The
attitude is the result of various internal and external factors. The scaling depends on the attitude
that is to be analyzed and based on this the proper scales are designed. The scaling is the
technique that is used for evaluating the qualitative responses of the respondent group. For
example, the attitudes of those respondents need to be measured the most whose feelings,
tradition, value and heritage are connected with the research. With the help of attitude scaling the
response of the people can be known to the researchers and after following the results they can
conduct the research without disturbing the respondents’ perceptions and beliefs. In other words,
the attitude scales provide a quantitative measurement of the attitudes that in short are converted
into scores that shapes the direction of the research exploration.
Personal Interviews- The personal interview survey is also known as the face –to face. This
survey method is the most useful when the research is supposed to be conducted on a particular
target audience. The main purpose of conducting the personal interview is to explore the
reactions of people directly in order to get deeper insight and huge information. The personal

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interviews probe the respondents to answer specific questions along with observing their
individual behaviors or collective behaviors. The personal interview method is preferred by the
researchers because there are so many advantages associated with this method. First of all, high
response rates are received through this response. The administration of questionnaires is found
to be less fruitful than the personal interviews. It has also been found that the open –ended
questions are the most tolerated by the respondents. Most of the respondents prefer to answer
orally than writing them. It enables opportunities for better observations of the characteristics of
the respondents, their attitudes, confidences and hesitations.
Null Hypothesis – The null hypothesis can be considered as the most valuable form of a
hypothesis. It is because it is the easiest way to test using the statistical analysis. This enables the
researcher to have full confidence on the hypothesis he /she is making. After testing the null
hypothesis, it is revealed whether the results are the outcome of chance or due to the effects of
changing variables. Moreover, the null hypothesis states that there is not any kind of relationship
between the independent variable and the measured phenomenon. In the public administrative
research, the researcher dies not need to believe that the null hypothesis is true. It is rather used
as a basis of an argument as it is easy to test. Hence, it does not mean that an experiment was
futile, if it is once rejected. The null hypothesis is symbolized with H0 because zero stand for
null.
Experimental Group- The experimental group is a group that is being tested for a reaction
to the difference in the variables. It is mainly used in a comparative type of experiment. In a
study too there can be experimental groups which are used to test various levels of variables. The
other type of group is the control group which shows the effects of change in the variables.
While setting up the experimental group two aspects need to be known. First of all, the

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researcher must know the variables he /she is going to test properly. Next, the researcher must
know about the measures that is going to be applied on the results. There must be some way of
comparison so that the results are measured properly. The comparison of the results found from
the control group and the results found from the experimental group is a better option for the
researchers.
Ethnography – It has been found that the researchers use various methods to answer the
questions. There are some questions which cannot be answered through the quantitative ways.
The qualitative method is the best way to address them. Ethnography is one such method that is
used to answer those type of questions. There are certain questions that can be addressed only by
the help of quantitative research design. The ethnographic research can be referred to as an
observation of some groups of people in a natural setting. In this type of research design,
observations are the main form of data collection and in order to clarify the observations of the
researchers, interviews are also used. The environments of the subjects and artifacts are paid
attention by the researcher along with the interactions with each other. Notably, ethnographies
are long –term studies which allows the researcher to see the regular patterns of community
study and observe how the patterns react in different situations. Here, the researcher plays an
important role as a learner whereas in other research designs, the researcher is an expert. In the
ethnographic studies, the researcher knows little and learns a lot.
Content Analysis- The content analysis is a type of research method for the study of
documents other communication artifacts. These can be texts of various pictures, formats, video
or audio. The content analysis is used by social scientists in order to examine in a systematic
manner the various patterns of communication. The advantages of content analysis are it is non-
invasive by nature that is contrasted with the collection of social survey answers. It is rather a

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type of research technique which is used to make valid inferences after interpreting and coding
the textual materials. The qualitative data an easily be converted to quantitative data by the
systematic evaluation of documents, graphics and oral communication. Although the method was
preferred by the social scientists, now it has occupied a special space among the organizational
scholars. It is nowadays, randomly being used as a tool to examine texts and various qualitative
data by the management researchers. However, it is also equally true that many scholars are still
not familiar with many content analysis techniques along with their application and associated
challenges. The challenges include the development of proxy dictionaries, coding schemes and
finding of adequate measures. The other problems are ensuring the reliability and the validity,
working with various texts which are significant in the field of content analysis. In the public
administrative research, content analysis has major importance. One type of content analysis is
the approach to scrutinize the competitive aggressiveness and the firms’ entrepreneurial
treatment.

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