Macquarie University Sociology Report: Human Trafficking and Race

This sociology report examines the intricate relationship between race and human trafficking, focusing on the prevalence of domestic sex trafficking, particularly of minors, and the undeniable connections between racial prejudice and human trafficking. It reviews literature on racial dimensions and human trafficking, highlighting how racial and ethnic stereotypes contribute to the dehumanization and exploitation of marginalized groups, increasing their vulnerability to trafficking. The report explores how racialized sexual fixation and cultural oppression, alongside the denial of resource access, intensify the risk for human trafficking. It also discusses the interplay of assertions regarding trafficking, the impact of stereotypes, and how the discourse surrounding human trafficking impacts public policy. The report concludes by emphasizing the role of oppression and intimidation as key elements in the exploitation of trafficked individuals.

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Introduction
In the past decade human trafficking has been identified as a major criminal justice
problem in various regions of the world. however while substantial level of attention has focused
on international trafficking domestic sex trafficking of children for minors is not only prevalent
but a significant Nexus tends to exist between human trafficking and race. Reports of
Zimmerman and Kiss (2017) have revealed that an estimated 230,000 to 320,000 miners have
been trafficked annually form and within the United States. Although the connections between
human trafficking and racial prejudice have not been distinct, they are nonetheless undeniable.
The following paper will review literatures regarding the connection between racial dimensions
and human trafficking especially of women and minors.
Literature review
Racism and Ethnic Prejudice Considering Human Trafficking
Stereotypes over and over again influence the distress individuals experience toward
members of the target group in addition to the behavioural patterns they engage in as they
recount to members of the target group. Butler (2015) has opined that human trafficking chiefly
involves the dehumanizing and undervaluing of an individual. Likewise, Zinn (2015) has
claimed that there can be witnessed persistent and extensive stereotypes regrading members of
racially as well as ethnically marginalized groups. These groups tend to contribute to the
tolerability of sex trading, exploiting and discarding them. As per the view of Zinn (2015), these
forms of stereotypes which are formed tend to increase a willingness within an individual to
indulge into unlawful acts of purchasing racially or ethnically marginalized people particularly
women and minors. Furthermore, members of racial and ethnic target groups repeatedly

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encounter objectification and labelling of being animalistic thus resulting in dehumanization.
These racial and ethnic stereotypes ease the dehumanization route further preceding the bigoted
and illegal act of human or sex trafficking. However, comprehensive studies of Butler (2015)
have revealed that these stereotypes have not only been advocated by individuals but have been
unethically disseminated through media, educational structure in addition to familial racial
socialization courses.
Trafficking Demand Advocated By Racial Obsession and Stereotypes
Research conducted by Barner, Okech and Camp (2014) have revealed that in the United
States, racialized sexual fixation along with racial animus stimulate the market. These markets
witness significant proportion of white men indulging in the act of obtaining commercial sex
with women of colour which also include minors. While Black children have greater tendency to
experience certain level of sex trafficking, other children of colour have been similarly at an
elevated risk in comparison to their white counterparts. Similar opinions have been offered by
Jones (2014) stating that Native Americans specifically develop an association between
colonization and a importunate objectification of native people for prostitution.
According to Barner, Okech and Camp (2014), the sexual stereotypes which have been
applied in order to validate human trafficking has its perseverance even in recent times, as Native
American minors have been experiencing objectifications targeted for sexual exploitation.
Studies conducted by De Shalit, Heynen and van der Meulen (2014) have found that acts of
prostitution of Native American girls have been significantly elevating. Empirical study
conducted on Native women in prostitution by Barner, Okech and Camp (2014) have revealed
that over 75 percent of the women have reported to have engaged into acts of prostitution for the

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quest of economic benefits or resources for drugs. As a consequence, several young Native
women tend to view prostitution as an economic outcome of having lost their wealth, ethnicity,
traditions and primary resources of economic endurance during colonization and succeeding
deprivation of human rights as well as opportunity by the U.S. government. Correspondingly, De
Shalit, Heynen and van der Meulen (2014) in their study have found that the anti-immigrant
culture of the U.S has eased illegal acts of sexual exploitation as well as human trafficking of
immigrant girls. Furthermore, research conducted by Plummer (2015) have found that in the
United States, rapes of an immigrant minor have frequently been overlooked in the form of an
undocumented victim hesitant to make any accounts of the illegal act.
Cultural Oppression, Rejection of Resource Access and Acts of Human Trafficking
Considering aspects related to the propagation of stereotypes or victim blaming approach,
factors related to cultural oppression tends to intensify the risk for human trafficking through the
denial of resource access. Barner, Okech and Camp (2014) have opined that these resources have
not been limited to safe shelter, adequate financial resources, education prospects, protected
childcare and protection under the law. At both international and national level, racial
determinants and ethnically targeted groups have been at susceptible positions thus vulnerable to
poverty, homelessness in addition to declined quality education as well as acts of violent
behaviour and illegal activities. According to Butler (2015), each of these factors tends to elevate
an individual risk for human trafficking. Furthermore, individuals suffering HIV positive status,
economic deficiency, and impoverished legislative infrastructure will augment the risk for
human trafficking. Research conducted by Zimmerman and Kiss (2017) has noted that
individuals with HIV positive status show a significant level of susceptibility towards trafficking
of minors and women. Such vulnerability emerges when these individuals experience disregard

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or abundance from their families. On the other hand, authors in their study have mentioned that
individuals experiencing significant level of economic deficiency or reside in a low-resource
nation in addition to individuals expericing homelessness tend to have inadequate educational
and vocational prospects or who have previously undergone traumatized relations show tendency
to be at increased risk for human trafficking.
Results
Figure 1: Race of trafficking victims identified in US law enforcement investigations when race
was known
Source: Chon and Khorana (2017)
Discussion
It is imperative to consider that racially marginalized women and minors have been at
augmented risk to hostility. Such susceptibility has emerged from histories of colonial sex
trafficking, mistreatment, systematic prostitution, stereotypes in addition to devalued social roles
and positions. Comprehensive studies of De Shalit, Heynen and van der Meulen (2014) have

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noted that human trafficking discourse acts as an interplay of assertions regarding trafficking
which comprises material and symbolic dimensions. As per the opinion of Sen and Baba (2017),
several illustrations of trafficked individuals and their experiences have been regarded as
symbols. These symbols mainly intensify a strong sense of urgency and further offer justification
for potential public policy reactions to human trafficking. According to Farrell and Cronin
(2015), the stereotypical trafficking victim typically involves foreign woman or minors who have
been abandoned by their families or through kidnapped forcefully or by coercive acts and
transferred to overseas territory. These acts develop into unlawful or illicit acts where trafficked
victims experience vigorous behavioural patterns for getting indulged into sex slavery under an
unvarying bombardment of threats, mistreatment, violence and appalling violence (Jones 2014).
In these cases victims have been categorized as mere objects exhibiting utmost powerlessness,
vulnerability, and inability to persuade the circumstances whereby she can seek a method to
escape or seek assistance.
Conclusion
Hence to conclude, it has been noted that acts of oppression and intimidation act as key
elements of the persecution account. It mainly implies that trafficked individuals tend to have no
power over their circumstances and consequently show incapacity to escape, break out or
challenge or eliminate such exploitive situations. Moreover, it has been frequently understood
that all trafficked individuals, together with prostitutes, have been enforced to employ in
exploitative behaviour through the means of sexual servitude or compulsory labour.

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References
Barner, J., Okech, D. and Camp, M., 2014. Socio-economic inequality, human trafficking, and
the global slave trade. Societies, 4(2), pp.148-160.
Butler, C.N., 2015. The racial roots of human trafficking. UCLA L. Rev., 62, p.1464.
Chon, K.Y. and Khorana, S., 2017. Moving forward: Next steps in preventing and disrupting
human trafficking. In Human Trafficking Is a Public Health Issue (pp. 415-441). Springer,
Cham.
De Shalit, A., Heynen, R. and van der Meulen, E., 2014. Human trafficking and media myths:
Federal funding, communication strategies, and Canadian anti-trafficking programs. Canadian
Journal of Communication, 39(3).
Farrell, A. and Cronin, S., 2015. Policing prostitution in an era of human trafficking
enforcement. Crime, Law and Social Change, 64(4-5), pp.211-228.
Jones, S.V., 2014. The invisible women: Have conceptions about femininity led to the global
dominance of the female human trafficker. Alb. Gov't L. Rev., 7, p.143.
Plummer, K., 2015. A Manifesto for a Critical Humanism in Sociology.
Sen, S. and Baba, Y., 2017. The human trafficking debate: implications for social work
practice. Social Work & Society, 15(1).
Zimmerman, C. and Kiss, L., 2017. Human trafficking and exploitation: a global health
concern. PLoS medicine, 14(11), p.e1002437.
Zinn, H., 2015. A people's history of the United States: 1492-present. Routledge.

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