Comprehensive Review of Three Research Articles: Findings and Analysis

This report provides a detailed review of three research articles. The first article examines hazing in college marching bands, exploring research questions, theoretical perspectives (psychological and sociological), research methodology (multi-stage cluster sampling), and conclusions, highlighting that hazing remains a concern. The second article investigates jazz improvisation, focusing on research questions related to the relationship between jazz theory knowledge, aural ability, and improvisation achievement. It also delves into theoretical perspectives on improvisation, the methodology (stratified sampling) used, and conclusions regarding the development of improvisation skills. The third article, though not fully detailed in the provided text, is also summarized, covering research questions, theoretical perspectives, research methodology, and conclusions regarding singing ability, musical self-concept, and future music participation. The report emphasizes the research methodologies employed, the key findings of each study, and their implications for understanding these topics within the context of higher education and music studies.

Short Review Paper on
Each Article

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1
ARTICLE 1......................................................................................................................................1
1. Research question....................................................................................................................1
2. Theoretical perspective ..........................................................................................................1
3. Conclusion of the research.......................................................................................................3
4. Research methodology ............................................................................................................3
ARTICLE 2......................................................................................................................................4
1. Research questions...................................................................................................................4
2. Theoretical perspective............................................................................................................4
3. Conclusion of the research.......................................................................................................5
4. Research methodology ............................................................................................................5
ARTICLE 3......................................................................................................................................7
1. Research Questions..................................................................................................................7
2. Theoretical Perspective............................................................................................................7
3. Conclusion of the research.......................................................................................................8
4. Research Methodology............................................................................................................9
CONCLUSION..............................................................................................................................10
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................11

INTRODUCTION
The report is based on three articles in which the first article “Hazing in the College
Marching Band” is described. In addition to this, the second article “Instrumental Jazz
Improvisation Development along with Characteristics of Novice, Intermediate and Advanced
Improvisers” and third “Singing Ability, Musical Self-Concept, and Future Music Participation”
are demonstrated in the form of research including questions, theoretical perspective, research
methodology and conclusion.
ARTICLE 1
1. Research question
“Is hazing still a concern in college marching band?”
Hazing can be defined as any situation developed or action taken with an intention to
cause harassment, embarrassment and physical or emotional harm to member of a group or team.
The purpose of this research is to identify whether students in marching band still facing issues
related to hazing. Researcher is interested in understanding the experiences of students with
hazing behaviour in collegiate marching band (Jason and Michael, 2015). Due to various
incidents such as Robert champion's death and drum major of the Florida A&M University
Marching 100, the interest of research on these subjects has been developed again. It is essential
to determine possible causes and reasons of hazing in marching band so that effective strategies
for prevention can be established and implemented to control this issue or problem.
2. Theoretical perspective
Psychological perspectives
In order to understand the reason of hazing and its endurance by individuals, hazing can
be examined with a wide range of psychological perspectives. The theory of severity-attraction
states that the more efforts an individual put in accomplishing a aim, the much desirable the goal
becomes. On the other hand, theory of severity affiliation attraction defines that those people
who endure hostile and demanding environments will establish a good relation with others who
have faced related situations (Jason and Michael, 2015). Relations between moral disengagement
and hazers have also been determined as a method of trying to state the reason why hazing
happens. According to these various psychological perspectives, authors have recommended that
people who are getting hazed tolerate it due to a powerful desire for the approval and affirmation
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of others to create self-concept of an individual. It is not necessary that hazing may only be a
case of immoral character rather it may demonstrate the happening of social communication,
situation's definition and utilization of symbols as a way to manipulate definitions of self for
members of a new group. Many research studies related to hazing have focused on different
results of harassment and embarrassment activities including psychological and physical impacts
of the same. Some researchers identified through their investigation that many students tolerate
hazing due to the desirable process of pledge or initiation.
Sociological perspectives
Initiations by different groups have been an essential component of western cultural
exercises since the period of ancient Greeks and is a major as well as continuous research subject
for social scientists (Jason and Michael, 2015). Hazing has been a critical factor for various
organizations historically including athletic companies, online communities, education and
religious groups, youth groups such as Boy scouts and future farmer of America as well as
military. Hazing behaviour and practices are not restricted to college campuses, it has also
became a big issue in the last few years. In educational area, there are two groups which have
received the most attention related to research affiliated to prevention and investigation on
hazing – Greek and Athletic organizations. Various research studies have focused on hazing
behavior in athletics. These investigations concluded that most of the student athletes experience
at least some kind of hazing. The research concluded that 80% of National Collegiate Athletic
association College Ahletes (NCACA) faced hazing attitude and behavior when they were a
member in team.
On the other hand, some other investigation determined that athletes experienced hazing
either as the one doing hazing or as one being hazed. Sororities and Fraternities are two groups
who have received the major attention related to hazing. College campuses all around the United
States are home to thousands of Sororities and Fraternities that take part constantly in events that
are essential for the Greek social culture. Since their establishment, Greek organizations have
been utilizing hazing practices in many rites of passage and initiations. Although, various critical
initiations rites were found to be against the Greek organization's principles. The main hazing
activities in these bodies were physical maltreatment, sleep deprivation and alcohol abuse.
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3. Conclusion of the research
Research concluded that hazing is still a big concern and critical aspect which is a
pervasive issue for most of the athletes or members of college marching band. In this
investigation, questionnaire was developed for addressing the research question. It helped in
identifying perspective of both the students who hazed and being hazed. It is determined from
this study that most of the students were not forced to be a part of hazing practices or behaviours.
Students also concluded that there are four main hazing actions they observed - “Being cursed,
yelled or sworn at”, “Depriving to sleep”, “Associate with specific individuals and not other” and
“Sing by self or with selected people in public in a condition that is not in realtion to a
performance, rehearsal or event . Hazing practices are harming group members both emotionally
and physically as identified from the above research. Furthermore, it is also determined that
students mainly, Sororities and Fraternities, are getting attention in relation with hazing activities
or practices.
4. Research methodology
The researcher has used multi-stage cluster sampling approach, this sampling is
performed by dividing population of interest into different groups such as colleges or
universities. This sampling method was selected on the basis of best practices recommendations
given by the American association for public opinion research (AAPOR). The multi-stage
methodology included two recruitment protocols based on internet. In the stage 1, researchers
distributed online notifications to direct subscribers of athletic band. Stage two consisted a
random group sampling of NCAA division schools. The participant selected in this research
included marching band members form division schools of the NCAA. The researcher excluded
student run ensembles form the sampling process. There were 1233 participants in the original
sample in which 18 individuals did not meet the criteria for participate in the investigation. The
research materials used in this investigation included questionnaire based on previous research or
studies conducted on hazing. The research methodologies used in this research were effective
and beneficial as it supported in collecting sufficient information related to the topic of the
investigation although there some limitations such as duplication of data, lack of resources such
as time, people and money. It was also difficult to motivate students to get involve in the survey
and contribute in the investigation.
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ARTICLE 2
1. Research questions
 What is the relationship between jazz theory knowledge, aural limitation ability, personal
background variable and the participant level improvisations achievements?
 What development tendency is evident in the cross sectional investigation of
relationships among jazz improvisation achievement and variables?
2. Theoretical perspective
Improvisation is now developed as an activity in musical phase and also recognised as a
core ability. Many traditions and genres utilise improvisation as an inherent section of
performances. Jazz teaching in early days happened on the band-stand in order to improvise by
imitating and observing others. Musical improvisation is commonly accepted in a highly
complex and multidimensional procedure as the extemporaneous performance and creation of
music. Internal and external; both constraints are included in musical improvisation. In addition,
improvisation has a wide mixture of music that compass from little or no rhetorical constraint.
The improvement ability also depend on knowledge base, procedural knowledge and consisting
of declarative (Palmer, 2016). Technical fluency is an important part of improvisational
procedure. The primary goal also depends on physical capability of feeling what is heard and
observed as well as felt. Substantial practice is required to become familiar with one instrument
in declarative fashion.
Improvisation in music is an ideal part towards flows to occur. This is the stage where
improviser focuses on all cognitive resources in order to accomplish order of consciousness.
Improvisation research is increasing since it has become a core competency in musical
education. As children develop and involved in musical acts, their improvisation becomes more
complex and purposeful including use of referents, motive and phrase structures. Curricula and
teaching strategies are effective towards developing skills of improvisation such as emphasis on
determining harmonic progress, inclusion of root melody, etc. This helps to improve and develop
performances. Improvisation achievement is influenced by playing or singing multiple
instruments. Apart from this, variables such as age, sex, maturity and aptitude may not affect
achievement of improvisation (Palmer, 2016). Regular improvisation practice leads to greater
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achievement. It is suggested that improvisation is a high level teachable skills which helps to
improve and develop intellectual improvement, experience, learning and practice.
The developmental explanation of improvisation describes quantitative and qualitative
changes over time including one or more areas of behaviour, relationship changes and general
course of development. Kratus approach to teaching improvisation contains developmental
explanation of procedure. The approach described 7 levels of improvisation such as fluid,,
process oriented, structural, product oriented, exploration, personal and stylistic creation. In
addition to this, level to level movement depends on improviser ability to demonstrate
characteristics at each level. In today's world, jazz education and learning towards improvisation
have become more systematic with the help of using combination of codified national material
effectively. Technical skills help to improve and develop attention of improviser directly to
higher level process of thinking such as novelty, coherence and expressiveness. The thinking
procedure includes evaluative monitoring. In this, improviser evaluates and monitors playing
during the performance.
3. Conclusion of the research
It is analysed that aural limitation ability of ones is correlated with technically strong
facility on an instrument. Superior technical facilities deliver capacity to achieve higher level of
improvisation. The findings advise that jazz improvisation does not depend on age. Research
question examines the relationship between monitoring and self-awareness whether high
capabilities to greater states of flow. The future research also investigates developmental stages.
Improviser's larger population over longer time is also helpful in evaluating the key movers of
variables developing improvisation expertise. Better understanding of jazz improvisation helps to
achieve effective strategies to implement for more advanced level of achievement of
improvisation.
4. Research methodology
Participants for the study are selected from high schools and educational institution
instrumental musical students. A total 70 respondents are selected who are self-identified having
experience of jazz improvisation. These are selected using stratified sampling method.
Participants have varying degrees of improvisation achievement and experience to analyse
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developmental tendencies and characteristics. High school instrumentalists are 26 and 44 from
five colleges are selected to participate in study.
PIES was developed to collect improvisation and sociology performances experiences
information from each of the participants. The further categories are achieved by creating a word
bank which is based on jazz analysis of book and periodical. This led to 37 item scale, which
measured by graduate scholars from university enrolled in contemporary improvisation and jazz.
In addition, aural limitation measure developed to measure acuity and ability of participants. The
performances are measured by lead sheet and iPod indicating the number of measures and
starting note.
Data is collected in a practice room as a procedure. Music teachers and ensemble
rehearsal is included so that participants can easily excuse individually to complete assessments.
Paper and pencil is used for written assessment and then improvisation task and aural limitation
are performed. Responses are recorded onto a TASCAM DR-1 portable digital recorder.
Data analysis in AIM consisted of pitches, rhythm, melodic shape and points per
measures. This helps participants to have partial credits for accurately some characteristic and
note. The resulting data generated is merged with data from the JTM, AIM and PIES and entered
into SPSS. Fundamental analysis of statistical data and interpretation is the improvisation
determination delivered by judging panel. It is crucial to have valid and reliable ratings for
improviser. In that case, participants could be used from musical schools to enhance
effectiveness of improvisation factors.
To answer the first question, jazz improvisation levels of achievement of participants are
determined and divided into three groups. 13 sets if scores are calculated based on 6 point scale.
The intermediate and novice groups includes 27 participants and advanced group of 16
participants. A simultaneous multiple regression analysis is conducted in which sample is
important. The means are compared for the investigation of second research of each of the post
researcher assigned to group of participants. At the end, comparison of means of performance
rating among group on the IAPM yielded statistically result in all category.
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ARTICLE 3
In the past, researchers have investigated that involvement of other music experts, family
background and belief of music self-concepts influences the decision making of an individual
regarding participation in music whereas, other researchers focused on identifying singing ability
and musical self-concept nexus. In the present study, Demorest, Kelley and Pfordresher (2017)
combined both the elements into single study in order to generate a robust outcome. In this
context, they segregated the study into two parts. The research questions, theoretical perspective,
research methodologies and results witnessed in the study will be disclosed in this critical
review.
1. Research Questions
Study I: Whether the combination of environmental and attitudinal variables assists in
anticipating student’s choice to continue in elective music instruction or not?
Study II:
1. Is there a difference in singing skill between those who have chosen to continue music
instruction and those who do not?
2. Are any aspects of students’ background or self-reported attitudes significantly related to
their actual singing accuracy?
2. Theoretical Perspective
Authors in order to enhance the effectiveness in the study established a robust theoretical
framework that uncovers all aspects related with subject matter. In order to enhance the
comprehensive understanding of readers, researchers in their study selected precise and academic
journals and articles. In literature, authors have found that 34 per cent of students in secondary
school participated in the elective music instruction which decline to 21 per cent in collaborative
participation of high school seniors. Investigators elucidated the rationale for inadequate
participation in elective music which was sociocultural factors, attitudes towards music, high
influence of family and peer as well as self-perception of musicality. Senior researchers in their
studies discovered that lack of confidence and inability to sing well affects the participation
decision making in elective music of students in elementary school (Demorest, Kelley and
Pfordresher 2017).
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Furthermore, in the literature, it was identified that those individuals who believed that
they were tone deaf were less likely to participate in the elective music and thus, eventually
considered them as unmusical. It was witnessed by researchers that through social interaction,
negative self-perception of an individual towards music is developed. Peers also played role in
lowering the morale of other individuals. In the literature, researchers explicitly claimed that
participants who possess normal singing abilities tend to underestimate them by comparing
themselves with much stronger musical peers. In the study, researchers discover that students
move out from elective music not for the reason that they lack singing capacity but due to
inadequate self-perceived as musician. Self-interest plays the major role in student’s participation
in elective music. In the study carried out by Clement in 2002 identified that four most crucial
variables i.e. self-high musical self-concept, an affirmative cognition towards music, a greater
affirmative influence of colleagues and a lower sense of cost of involvement in elective music
greatly influence the decision making of students regarding participation in elective music
(Demorest, Kelley and Pfordresher 2017).
Researchers identified in the literature that significant role has been played by socio-
economic factors in retaining of students in instrumental music but is not defined consistently
and did not seem to anticipate initial enrolment of students in the elective music. Student’s self-
perception and attitude towards music was also the key factor due to which students tend to opt
out from the elective music participation. Thus, there are numerous factors that influence the
decision making of students in participating in music.
3. Conclusion of the research
On the basis of results obtained, students whose family members or peers were engaged
in music and who possess higher musical self-concept are likely to opt to participate in elective
music instructions. Researchers state that it is the duty and responsibility of music educators in
elementary school to identify skills and abilities of younger students about their self-concept in
music and also other attitudinal variables (Demorest, Kelley and Pfordresher 2017). Musically,
self-concept is essential which helps in determining interest of students and their attitudes
towards participation in the music. In the study, researchers claim that musically, self-concept is
related with participants’ selection and actual singing ability.
Researcher straightforwardly stated that music educators are the main culprits in
developing negative self-concepts in students regarding music. They focus on developing
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preciseness in child signing ability which hinders the enhancement of affirmative own belief and
therefore, demoralises their further involvement in the music. National singing syllabus of
British Primary schools have been extensively investigated by the researchers where they
discovered that skills of children’s signing substantially improved but their attitude towards
singing became more negative. Thus, researchers in their study were able to answer the questions
effectively and efficiently. They discovered various aspects which influence student’s reluctance
towards participation in the elective music instruction adequately.
4. Research Methodology
The study was classified into two parts where separate analysis was made by the
researchers separately. The research methodologies for both the studies are described below:
Study I
In Study I, the participants were students of sixth grade of age between 12-16 years
collected from five primary schools. Total of 328 students were selected for the study out of
which 9 were rejected as they haven’t filled the questionnaire completely which reduces the
sample to 319 (Demorest, Kelley and Pfordresher 2017). Researchers circulated two
questionnaire during their music class. In the first questionnaire, basic questions regarding family
background in music has been asked to the participants and the second questionnaire was
adopted from an instrument created by Clements (2002) which was made to analyse the attitudes
and beliefs of the students. Multiple Logistic Regression with Standard Predictor Entry has been
used for analysing the collected data
Study II
The participants were selected randomly from Study I by using non-proportional
stratified sampling including both who were persisting in their music course and those who were
not. A sample size of 100 students was taken which produces 55 students who were continuing
and who were not continuing their music course (Demorest, Kelley and Pfordresher 2017).
MATLAB protocol was facilitated in order to carry out singing task. By using Multiple Linear
Regression with Standard Predictor Entry analysis of data has been made.
Questionnaire method was beneficial as it helps researcher in gathering large data in
minimum time. Though analysing the responses was bit complex and consumes time of
researcher.
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CONCLUSION
In the above study, critical review of all three articles has been made systematically. The
research questions of all articles have been presented in a structural and systematic manner.
Furthermore, theoretical perspective has been explained in the study and conclusion of all
articles has been presented succinctly in the review. Eventually, the research methods utilised by
researchers in all three articles have been evaluated in the study.
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