An Overview of Research Designs: Cross-Sectional, Longitudinal & More

This essay provides a comprehensive overview of research designs, focusing on cross-sectional, longitudinal, explanatory, and descriptive studies. It defines research design as a plan to answer research questions using empirical research, identifying data, methods, and analysis. Cross-sectional studies are defined as observational studies that estimate the proportion of a population with a particular disease at a specific time, while longitudinal studies involve data collection on a population sample multiple times to establish causal relationships and observe changes over time. Explanatory studies clarify misunderstood research topics, and descriptive studies provide a natural picture of a situation to develop theories and make decisions. The essay also discusses data collection methods like observation, experiments, surveys, and case studies, highlighting their uses in primary data generation and causal relationship establishment. The conclusion emphasizes that researchers may choose or combine methods based on research needs, acknowledging the benefits and limitations of each study type. Desklib provides access to similar solved assignments and study resources for students.

Running head: QUESTIONS ON RESEARCH DESIGN 1
Questions on Research Design
Student’s Name
Institutional Affiliation

QUESTIONS ON RESEARCH DESIGN 2
Question One
According to Van Wyk (2012), research design is a plan that is used to answer the
research questions using the empirical research. It identifies the data, method, and analysis to be
conducted. Some other researchers define research design as a method that is used to test a
hypothesis formulated from the research questions identified (Van Wyk, 2012). A research
design is conducted using different types. These various types depend on the kind of research
being done (Van Wyk, 2012). For example, cross sectional studies are used when data is
collected at a particular time while longitudinal studies are conducted when data is collected
more than once.
Question Two
Introduction
Research is essential in examining features in daily lives. Most researchers carry out their
investigations using different research methods. Initially, the research process begins with the
establishment of a hypothesis. As mentioned earlier, the research design is used to validate the
hypothesis. The research design is done using different studies such as cross sectional,
longitudinal, explanatory and descriptive studies.
Cross Sectional Studies
The first type of research design is cross sectional studies. Sedgwick (2014) defines
cross sectional studies as studies that provide an estimate of the proportion of a population that
has a particular disease, which is the disease's prevalence, at a specific time. The study is
observational (Hemed, 2015). In this case, the researchers do not intervene but merely record the
characteristics of the participants such as health and attitude. One of the advantages of a cross
sectional study is that it is cheap, but it is disadvantageous since it does not show causation

QUESTIONS ON RESEARCH DESIGN 3
(Hemed, 2015). The lack of follow up since the data is collected at a particular time makes it
cheaper.
The other characteristics of cross-sectional studies are discussed below. In cross-sectional
studies, data is collected at a particular time, but recruitment of the participants may take time
(Sedgwick, 2014). For example, a cross-sectional study to determine the prevalence of chronic
fatigue and related exposures (mental health and gender disadvantages) in Goa, India was
conducted (Sedgwick, 2014). In the study, the participants were recruited between November
2001 and May 2003. The selection of the participants is made using random sampling (Hemed,
2015). This selection ensures each has an equal chance of participating.
Longitudinal Studies
The second type of research design is longitudinal studies. According to Lynn (2009),
longitudinal studies entail collection of data on a sample of the population for multiple times.
These studies are also observational. For example, in 2004, The Survey of Health Ageing and
Retirement in Europe was a longitudinal study where data were collected among 30000 people
aged above fifty years (Lynn, 2009). Additionally, the type of longitudinal studies varies such as
cohort, representatives, and linked panels (Lynn, 2009). The method of data collection, the
population, and research topics are some of the factors that determine the type of longitudinal
study.
Longitudinal studies have both advantages and disadvantages. One of the benefits is that
they establish a causal relationship, unlike the cross sectional studies. The second advantage is
patterns can be derived from studying the sequence of events (Caruana et al., 2015). Moreover,
they allow the researcher to observe the changes over an extended period. The first disadvantage
is that the studies are expensive (Caruana et al., 2015). The huge expense is attributed to the

QUESTIONS ON RESEARCH DESIGN 4
length of time allocated to these studies. The second disadvantage is that lack of follow up may
affect the results of the studies (Caruana et al., 2015). The lack of follow up may occur due to
interruptions.
Explanatory Studies
Explanatory studies are also used in research design. Van Wyk (2012) states that the
explanatory studies are undertaken when little is known about a research topic. Additionally, it
can be used when the subject of the research is misunderstood (Van Wyk, 2012). The main aim
of such type of research would be to gain clarity. Van Wyk (2012) argues that these types of
studies are used with informal structure. The use of informal structures makes the research
flexible. These studies are used to identify factors in the environment. These factors are used in
research where problems and opportunities are identified.
Explanatory studies using different methods. For example, secondary data analysis and
focus groups can be used to collect data in these studies (Van Wyk, 2012). An example of an
explanatory study is one conducted on the opinions of nurses concerning the pain felt by
dementia patients (De Langen, 2009). The study was conducted using focus groups. One of the
benefits of explanatory research is increased understanding (Yousaf, n.d.). As mentioned earlier,
the use of these studies increases knowledge on unknown subjects. The disadvantage of using
these studies is that they use samples that may be useless (Yousaf, n.d.). The samples become
useless if they cannot be used in research in a specific area.
Descriptive Studies
Descriptive studies are used in research design. According to De Langen (2009), these
studies are used to provide a natural picture of the situation. The studies are used in research to
develop theories, which can be used to make decisions (De Langen, 2009). Additionally, they

QUESTIONS ON RESEARCH DESIGN 5
can be used to make a judgment on current situations. These studies also define variables in
relationships that describe the existence of relationships. The information obtained from these
studies can be used to formulate hypotheses, which are used in experiments, but that is not the
studies’ aim.
Descriptive studies have advantages and disadvantages. One of the benefits of descriptive
studies is that the subjects are observed in their natural environment (Creswell, 2013). For
example, an anthropologist may observe a community in its natural habitat. The second
advantage is that the findings in descriptive studies can be used in further research (Creswell,
2013). For the disadvantages, the first one is that the subjects may be unnatural, which may
affect the results negatively (Creswell, 2013). The outcome occurs when they are being observed
in their natural habitat. Lastly, the research may be subject to bias (Creswell, 2013). The bias
occurs because the researcher solely decides which information to include in the research.
Conclusion
A research design is done using different studies due to the different types of research
involved. Additionally, varied data collection and analysis methods are used. Most of the studies
discussed have benefits and limitations. Therefore, researchers may choose to use one method or
combine methods depending on the needs of the research.
Question Four
Observation
Observation is used in research to collect data. Observation is defined as the collection of
data related to how the subjects behave through the recording of what is witnessed (Urquhart,
2015). Additionally, observations can be of different types. For instance, observation can be
structured or unstructured (Urquhart, 2015). The structured type requires the use of rules and the

QUESTIONS ON RESEARCH DESIGN 6
unstructured does not follow any rules. Observation can also be participant or non-participant
(Urquhart, 2015). The participant is where the researcher is involved in the activities while the
non-participant the research observes. Additionally, observations are used in the generation of
primary data (Van Wyk, 2012). The primary data is mainly collected because it entails
witnessing patterns in behaviors.
Experiment
The use of experiments is a form of research. Experiments are done when the researcher
influences a variable to measure changes in other dependent variables (Ghani, 2014). Ghani
(2014) states that experiments are mainly used in causal relationships. They provide empirical
evidence that supports these relationships. Additionally, experiments are used in the study of
sciences such as physics and chemistry. During data collection, one of the methods that is used is
data sampling. Van Wyk (2012) argues that experiments are used in the collection of primary
data. This data is later analyzed to establish the causal relationship.
Survey
A survey is also a form of research. It entails the collection of data from a sample using
methods such as interviews and questionnaires (Mathiyazhagan & Nandan, 2010). It is also
mainly used in descriptive studies. Some others argue that survey research mostly deals with
people in sociological research (Mathiyazhagan & Nandan, 2010). According to Mathiyazhagan
and Nandan (2010), surveys were developed in different stages. For the first stage, surveys
entailed the collection of data. It mainly occurred in the 1930s (Mathiyazhagan & Nandan,
2010). The second stage is characterized by the association of descriptive studies and surveys. In
particular, surveys were referred to as descriptive studies (Mathiyazhagan & Nandan, 2010).
Lastly, they were data analysis was valued more in survey research.

QUESTIONS ON RESEARCH DESIGN 7
Case Study
Case studies are also used in research. Case studies are studies that focus on the analysis
of a case and the identification of its characteristics (Starman, 2013). Case studies are mainly
used in qualitative or quantitative research. Case studies can be of different types depending on
the period and the development of theories. For example, they may be snapshot when
considering time or heuristic case studies when theories are considered (Starman, 2013). Starman
(2013) states that case studies are mostly used in investigating cases not identifying samples
from defined populations. Therefore, the use of sampling methods is not usually common in case
studies. Lastly, they are mainly used to collect primary data.
References

QUESTIONS ON RESEARCH DESIGN 8
Caruana, E. J., Roman, M., Hernández-Sánchez, J., & Solli, P. (2015). Longitudinal
studies. Journal of thoracic disease, 7(11), E537.
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches. Sage publications.
De Langen, A. N. (2009). Nurses' opinion of pain in patients who suffer from dementia (Doctoral
dissertation).
Ghani, A. A. (2014). Experimental Research Methods for Students in Built Environment and
Engineering. In MATEC Web of Conferences (Vol. 10, p. 01001). EDP Sciences.
Hemed, M. (2015). Cross-sectional studies. Training Course in Sexual and Reproductive Health
Research, Geneva.
Lynn, P. (2009). Methods for longitudinal surveys. Methodology of longitudinal surveys, 1-19.
University of Essex, UK.
Mathiyazhagan, T., & Nandan, D. (2010). Survey research method. Media Mimansa, 4(1), 34-45.
Sedgwick, P. (2014). Cross sectional studies: advantages and disadvantages. BMJ: British
Medical Journal, 348.
Starman, A. B. (2013). The case study as a type of qualitative research. Journal of
Contemporary Educational Studies/Sodobna Pedagogika, 64(1).
Urquhart, C. (2015). Observation research techniques. Journal of EAHIL, 11(3), 29-31.
Van Wyk, B. (2012). Research design and methods Part I. University of Western Cape.
Yousaf, M. (n.d.). Explanatory research definition, types, comparison, advantages,
disadvantages. Scholarship Fellow. Retrieved from
https://scholarshipfellow.com/explanatory-research-definition-types-comparison-
advantages-disadvantages/