Sociology: Positivism, Key Figures, Norms, and Social World Analysis

This sociology essay traces the historical development of sociology in Europe, beginning with an explanation of positivism and the contributions of Comte, Spencer, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber. It explores the concept of social norms, differentiating between folkways, mores, and taboos with examples from American culture. The essay concludes by reflecting on the usefulness of sociology in understanding the social world, emphasizing its role in linking personal troubles to broader socio-political contexts. Desklib provides access to similar essays and study resources for students.

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SOCIOLOGY
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1. Trace the historical development of sociology in ******ope, beginning with an
explanation of positivism. Continue the answer with a brief description of the
contributions of Comte, Spencer, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber. Conclude by pondering if
sociology is useful in understanding the social world or not.
Ans.) The dawn of sociology can be traced to the twin events of industrial revolution and French
Revolution. The significance of these two events is that it changed the social landscape of and
ushered in drastic changes in the orientation of the workforce, mobilization of people,
reconfiguration of the structure of the family, emanation in new family values, different political
and social ethos. All these demanded an intervention, perusal and reflection by scholars who
would be able to critically understand the circumstances and respond according to the
dimensions and essence of transformation.
Auguste Comte is considered to the founding father of Sociology and he directed his
attention to the examination of the change, development and progress that was taking place in the
society. Comte’s French Philosopher introduced the term positivism that contributed to the
systematization of Sociology (Hammond, Cheney and Pearsey: 100-109). There was a gradual
development in positivism through the different stages namely Empiriocriticism, Logical
Positivism and the Logical Positivism that finally gave way to the 20th c. Analytic and Linguistic
philosophy. Comte’s notion of positivism was concerned with the three stages- theological stage,
metaphysical stage and the positive philosophical stage.
The theological stage is characterized by the belief in the divine and supernatural powers.
In the metaphysical stage, theology is depersonalized and it is believed that the observable

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processes of the nature are assumed to emerge from the impersonal powers. In the positive
philosophical stage that is characterized by the scientific spirit and empiricism, science has
attained its maturity and explanation about the natural events is done through the general law like
explanations. Apart from this, he also conceptualized social statics and social dynamics.
Spencer’s contribution to Sociology lies in drawing analogy between the functions of organism
to that of the functioning of the Society. This is known as organismic sociology. Durkheim is
known for his functionalist contribution to sociology and the conceptualization of the term sui
generis.
Karl Marx although studied within sociology was not a Sociologist but a philosopher.
Marx discussed about the class struggle that takes place between the bourgeois and the
proletariat over the means of production (Giddens: 32-36). He contended that the withering away
of the capitalist state would lead to the establishment of a socialist state and eliminate distinction.
Max Weber’s contribution to sociology is that of associating social action for understanding the
function of the Society. He is credited for paving the path of micro-sociology by focusing on the
individual as the unit of analysis. Sociology is useful for understanding the society as it enables
in linking the personal trouble of the individual with the broader socio-political context.

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2.What are norms?
Describe the differences among these norms and give an example of each from the American
Culture.
Ans.) The term social norms have its origin in the social value that is used in differentiating
human behavior from the different species. Human beings are capable of engaging in elaborate
symbolic interaction and in structuring their behavior in accordance with the abstract preferences
of values. Norms can be considered as rules, customs, principles and regulations that is used by
the group as a framework for living in the society (Crossman, Ashley, and Major Sociological
Works: 54-57). The words, rules, regulations and the customs evoke a form of formal listing that
is referred to as the norms of behavior of a group. In majority of the societies, there is codified
behavior regarding the appropriate standards of interaction and therefore, this renders norms an
informal nature. Norms are also permeated through socialization and imbibed by the individuals
as part of interaction in various social institutions. Norms are passed on from one generation to
the other generation. Norms underscore on the wide range of behavior.
According to sociologist William Graham Sumner (35-38) norms refer to the ways rules
are developed in the society by a group or cluster of people and they specify how each of these
would be applicable according to the appropriate situation. The term folkways refer to the
customs and the standards of behavior that are appropriate and morally significant for survival in
the society. An example of this would be the cultural forms of dress or the dietary habits of the
individual. In the American context if an individual made loud noise whilst eating the food

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dinner table, it would termed as infringement of the folkway. This is because belching at the
dinner table is not culturally appropriate.
The term mores refer to the strict norms that regulate and control the ethical behavior of
the individuals. Mores are premised on the definitions of the vice and virtue. In juxtaposition to
folkways, mores are considered to be morally significant. An example of mores would be the
religious discourse and the doctrines. In the context of the American society, an individual needs
to maintain certain decorum whilst visiting the church and at the same time the observance of
religious rituals would also be an illustration of mores.
On the other hand, taboos indicate norms that is considered to be important by the
society as the violation of this culminates to extreme disgust. The person who violates or
challenges the taboo is considered to be a nihilist and pushed to the periphery of the society by
making the person an outcast. An illustration of taboo in the context of American society would
be incest taboo and cannibalism.

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References
Crossman, Ashley, and Major Sociological Works. "Norms: Folkways, Mores, Taboos, and
Laws." (2014).
Giddens, Anthony, et al. Introduction to sociology. WW Norton, 2016.
Hammond, Ron, P. Cheney, and R. Pearsey. "Introduction to sociology." (2015).
Sumner, William Graham. Folkways-A Study Of The Sociological Importance Of Usages,
Manners, Customs, Mores And Morals. Read Books Ltd, 2013.